Language features and functions of special literary words

I. Chapter. Borrowings in the language

1. 
   Classification and types of borrowings in the language
   

Language is a system of signs, which, in the course of its development, is constantly changing: it is supplemented with new words, expressions, concepts, or, conversely, it gradually “fades out” when fewer people use it in their daily lives. In the first case, it can become one of the leading languages of the world, while in the second case, it eventually becomes a dead language.²
A striking and very famous example of a dead language is Latin. It was spoken by the Great Roman Empire, which considered itself the center of the world: "All roads lead to Rome." The Romans had a strong influence on the rest of the world, they spoke only Latin, so other nations had to learn their language, borrow many words. On the basis of Latin, other languages of the future world powers were formed: France, Germany, England, Italy and others.
Strong similarities can be seen in their alphabets, grammatical structures, word order in sentences, pronunciation and spelling. In the modern world, we will not see the use of Latin in speech or writing, except in such areas of scientific activity as medicine and pharmacology, where it is used in the names of various parts of the body, diseases and drugs. Also, teaching the basics of this language takes place in higher educational institutions. Let us consider the purpose of such a subject as Latin and what it gives students studying it.
Such a discipline helps students in structuring the knowledge about foreign languages already acquired at school, especially if they are future linguists, philologists or teachers of foreign languages. The clear structure of the Latin language allows you to visually see and feel its logic, understand the use of certain linguistic units, correctly semantize them , distinguish a large number of variations of grammatical phenomena and use all this correctly in writing or in oral speech.
Now let's take a closer look at the language of world significance, which is used in the modern world at the level of intercultural communication and diplomatic relations. The English language "rise" above all the others, it is extremely relevant today. It is also known as "Latin of the 20th century" (https://moluch.ru/archive/114/30182). The reason for its so frequent use in the modern world is, and was, many factors.
This universal international language began to dominate the world at the end of the twentieth century. To feel the birth of the first world language, you need to turn to world history. During the reign of Elizabeth Tudor, a strong English fleet was created, thanks to which the British won the war with Spain. The British created many colonies in North America, Africa, Asia, Australia and India, successfully developed trade with a large number of countries, therefore, subjects of the British crown had to constantly be in contact with all the peoples with whom they developed international relations.
Based on this, communication with many countries gave a big impetus to the development of other languages, because it was difficult to resist the strongest power at that time and the owner of the best fleet, and the inhabitants of countries in contact with Great Britain adopted their language. There was a borrowing of many English lexical units, their adaptation and assimilation in the languages of the colonized countries.
As we mentioned earlier, the language provides researchers with a vast field for its study, since it undergoes constant changes under the pressure of various extralinguistic factors, such as the number of people who speak a particular language or dialect; location of the country relative to other states; the social structure of society; cultural and linguistic traditions and so on. But, in our opinion, borrowing is the most powerful factor in the transformation of any language. It is closely related to the location of the country and its influence on the rest of the world.
The Russian language, according to statistics, is now in 4th place in the world ranking of approximately 6000-7000 languages in the world (http://www.openlanguage.ru). This suggests that, despite its position in the ranking of world languages, it is also subject to influence from other languages, and especially English as the first world language, due to intercultural communication.
An intense influx of foreign words can be observed in certain periods of Russian history: this is the Petrine era, when the most important economic and social changes, scientific and technological revolutions took place; In recent decades, one can observe an intensive filling of our native language with various Anglicisms and Americanisms, " Westernization ", which has a double meaning. On the one hand, borrowings are progressive in nature: they enrich the language and expand its vocabulary. Otherwise, borrowing is seen as a deformation of the established lexical and structural norms of the language.³
Based on the foregoing, we clearly see that the language is very flexible in responding to the various needs of society. In the modern world, a huge number of new terms and concepts have appeared related to technical progress, the modernization of various spheres of life, the computerization of many data, such as magazines, books, articles, works, and the like.
The emergence of new technologies requires certain names, definitions . For example, one of the first mentions of such a well-known computing machine as a “computer” was back in the 19th century: the English mathematician Charles Babbage conceived and developed a plan for such an analytical engine. He even managed to create its prototype, but failed to finance it ( https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babbage_Charles). As we can see, the word "computer" appeared in the vocabulary of many countries thanks to England, where the name of this machine was given. The rest of the countries adopted it for lack of analogues in their lexical composition of the language. This word is firmly rooted all over the world and for us it no longer sounds like something foreign, alien: a computer is an integral part of the modern world.
Borrowed vocabulary occupies a separate and important place in any language; it is always in the area of close attention from translators, linguists, philologists, critics, and public figures. To determine the correct use of a particular borrowed word, we need to know what kind of borrowing it belongs to.
There are many classifications of this type of enrichment and language development:

1. 
   direct borrowing;
   
2. 
   terms;
   
3. 
   hybrids;
   
4. 
   tracing;
   
5. 
   professionalism;
   
6. 
   exoticisms.
   

Let's consider each of them in more detail. In our opinion, direct borrowings are more common than other types. They are already firmly rooted in the language and can be distinguished only by careful study of the borrowed word. For example, such words as sport ( sport ), club ( club ) and many other lexical units semantically merged with other units in the Russian language. They are not perceived as foreign, and many people doing research in the field of language are surprised to find how large the number of rooted borrowings in a given language is.
A term is a word and phrase that accurately denotes any concept used in science, technology, art (http://www.terminologija.ru/russkij-jazyk/46-t/450-termin).
Very often you can find such words as parliament ( parliament ), speaker ( speaker ), summit ( summit ), briefing ( briefing ) and many others in the political sphere. Often we operate with such terms as thriller ( thriller ), x o pp o p ( horror ), single ( single ), trailer ( trailer ), x um ( hit ) in the field of culture; and the scanner ( scanner ), mixer ( mixer ), printer ( printer ), combine ( combine ), telephone ( telephone ) are used in the technical field .
Hybrids are formed by adding Russian morphemes, such as a prefix, ending or suffix, to the stem of a foreign word ( Trubinova 2016:1209-1212). Borrowings are assimilated by the Russian language in their original form not so often, therefore, differences in the phonetic structure of our language and the language - the source of borrowing led to the fact that a foreign word changed in our environment. During the period of adaptation, the borrowings have lost any sounds unusual for the Russian language. An example is such lexical units as "creative" ( creative - creative).
Tracing is the process of borrowing foreign words while preserving their graphic o g o and phonetic o g o appearance, for example club ( club ), menu ( menu ), virus ( virus ) and many others. Tracing methods are lexical, semantic, derivational and phraseological. This process can be viewed from different angles: as a way of borrowing and as a way of word formation in the language. Trubinova E. A. identifies such methods of tracing as:
Lexical tracing paper is a literal translation of a word from one language to another in parts. A striking example is the word "skyscraper", which was borrowed from the English language, which in the original sounds like sky - scraper ; "iron curtain" ( i ron certain ) is also a prime example of this borrowing method.
Semantic tracing paper - borrowed words that have both direct and figurative meanings. For example, the word "picture" ( picture ), denoting a work of art, namely painting, or a spectacle. Under the influence of English, it also began to be used in the meaning of "movie".⁴
Word formation is a way of creating a new concept by combining two others. In Russian, word formation is observed in the same way as in English: air + craft , tooth + paste , boarding school, vag o n - rest o ran. But examples such as business lady ( business lady - business woman) or reality show ( reality show ) show us a new way to create a concept: one of the roots is the main one, and the second one has a descriptive function. Such combined words are also called "composites" (from the Latin " compositum " - connection).
Professionalisms are words that people of a particular profession use in their speech, or lexical units related to a particular specialization . But, unlike terms, they are not acceptable as official concepts and are not used in scientific activity. Usually, these are all sorts of turns of speech and jargon ( Trubinova 2016:1209-1212). People of almost any profession have their own set of professionalisms, which is associated with the need to clearly identify various phenomena and processes in working life. The formation of such lexemes occurs through association with suitable everyday concepts .
You can often find professional anglicisms in Russian in such areas of human activity as computer technology, business, sports, the media and politics a .
In business and politics, anglicisms are used in the following cases:

1. 
   to denote the monetary units of the United Kingdom (pound ( pound ), pound sterling ( pound sterling ));
   
2. 
   to describe political phenomena and people in this area (president ( president ), minister ( minister ), administration ( administration ));
   
3. 
   as an appeal to women and men (mister ( mister ), mrs ( missis ), miss ( miss ), sir ( sir ), lady ( lady ));
   
4. 
   to describe economic phenomena ( offshore , business , holding , sponsor , investor ) .
   

Computer technologies in Russian use countless borrowed English lexemes: internet ( internet ), display ( display ), modem ( modem ), print ( print ), disk ( disk ), animation ( animation ), blog (short for web log - diary / magazine on the Internet), blogger ( blogger - a person who blogs) and many others.
In sports, anglicisms predominate in the names of games (volleyball - volleyball , basketball - basketball , hockey - hockey , curling - curling , diving - diving ) and as a designation for various phenomena associated with it (goalkeeper - goalkeeper , timeout - timeout , n o cout - knockout , referee - referee ).
In the media, borrowings from the English language are also used to refer to certain objects or phenomena in the absence of their analogues in Russian: talk shows ( talk show ), rating ( rating ), program ( program ), showman ( showman ) and so on.
Exoticisms or exotic words are words that are not characteristic of our native language, used in speech to more accurately describe the speech, traditions and customs of the inhabitants of a particular country. They do not have Russian synonyms and are most often used in fiction, as they carry a stylistic coloring and a more precise lexical meaning. A striking example of this is the word "jazz" ( jazz ).⁵

2.