Iran: Internal Politics and U.S. Policy and Options
Congressional Research Service
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Dr. Hassan Rouhani
Hassan Rouhani, a Hojjat ol-Islam in the Shiite clergy (one rank below Ayatollah) straddles the acedmic world as
well as holder of a Ph.D. in law from Glasgow Caledonian University in Scotland. Rouhani, born in 1948, is a long-
time regime stalwart who was part of Ayatollah Khomeini’s circle prior to the triumph of the Islamic revolution.
He is also an associate and protégé of Rafsanjani, and Rouhani’s pragmatic policy approach on issues such as the
nuclear issue and relations with the United States has complicated Rouhani’s relations with Khamene’i. Khamene’i
criticized Rouhani’s economic and foreign policies during the 2017 presidential election period, appearing to seek
Rouhani’s defeat.
Career Background
Often nicknamed the “diplomat sheikh,” Rouhani was chief nuclear negotiator during 2003-2005, when Iran did
agree to suspend uranium enrichment. Rouhani is a longtime member of the political establishment. Then-
President Rafsanjani appointed him a member of the Supreme National Security Council in 1989, and he remains
on that body. He has been a member of the Assembly of Experts since 1999 (and reelected to that body in the
February 2016 election), and was a member of the Majles during 1980-2000, serving twice as deputy speaker. He
has also been a member of the Expediency Council since 1991. He headed the Center for Strategic Studies, a
foreign policy think tank that has advised the Expediency Council and the Supreme Leader, since 1992. Although
he supported the crackdown against an earlier student uprising in July 1999, during the presidency of reformist
figure Mohammad Khatemi, in 2013, Rouhani campaigned on a platform of easing the Islamic Republic’s social
restrictions and its suppression of free expression, helping him draw support from reformists.
Rouhani Presidency
Rouhani’s presidency has been marked by the JCPOA, reintegration into the global community, success in
preserving the Asad regime in Syria, and further economic turmoil following the 2018 U.S. withdrawal from the
JCPOA. Hardliners who opposed Iranian concessions in the JCPOA were unable to persuade Khamene’i, the
Majles, or the COG to block the accord, but he faces escalating political pressure from hardliners since the U.S.
withdrawal from the JCPOA. An illustration of that pressure has been the conviction of his brother, Hossein
Fereidoun, on charges of corruption and his sentencing on October 1, 2019, to five years in prison, Rouhani has
not sought changes in Iran’s regional policies. Sanctions relief during 2016-2018 caused the economy to grow since
sanctions were lifted, but Khamene’i’s advocacy of a “resistance economy” have been widely interpreted as
contradicting Rouhani’s emphasis on developing trade relations.
Rouhani has sought to promote freedom of expression and political tolerance over the objections and contrary
actions by hardliners in the judiciary and the security services. In September 2016, Rouhani achieved adoption of a
new “charter for citizen’s rights,” and he has achieved the release of some prisoners incarcerated for involvement
in the 2009 uprising, including prominent human rights lawyer Nasrin Sotoudeh. However, the judiciary and
security institutions have continued to arrest and prosecute U.S.-Iran dual nationals and other dual nationals for
alleged efforts to undermine the regime, and to incarcerate the leaders of the 2009 uprising. Rouhani managed
significant public unrest in late 2017-early 2018 by restraining hardline institutions from a major crackdown and
acknowledging protester griievances. Has also apparently prevailed on hardliners to ease enforcement of the
public dress code for women. Has not succeeded, to date, in efforts to marginalize the IRGC role in Iran’s
economy.
Photograph from http://www.rouhani.ir.
Majles and Assembly of Experts Elections in 2016
On February 26, 2016, Iran held concurrent elections for the Majles and for the Assembly of
Experts. A runoff round for 68 Majles seats was held on April 29. For the Majles, 6,200
candidates were approved, including 586 female candidates. Oversight bodies invalidated the
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candidacies of about 6,000, including all but 100 reformists. Still, pro-Rouhani candidates won
140 seats, close to a majority, and the number of hardliners in the body was reduced significantly.
Independents, whose alignments vary by issue, hold about 50 seats. Seventeen women were
elected—the largest number since the revolution. The body reelected Ali Larijani as Speaker.
For the Assembly of Experts election, 161 candidates were approved out of 800 who applied to
run. Reformists and pro-Rouhani candidates defeated two prominent hardliners—the incumbent
Assembly Chairman Mohammad Yazdi and Ayatollah Mohammad Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi. COG
head Ayatollah Jannati retained his seat, but came in last for the 30 seats elected from Tehran
Province. He was subsequently named chairman of the body.
Presidential Election on May 19, 2017
In the latest presidential election on May 19, 2017, Rouhani won a first-round victory with about
57% of the vote. He defeated a major figure, Hojjat ol-Eslam Ibrahim Raisi—a close ally of
Khamene’i. Even though other major hardliners had dropped out of the race to improve Raisi’s
chances, Raisi received only about 38% of the vote.
Municipal elections were held concurrently. After vetting by local committees established by the
Majles, about 260,000 candidates competed for about 127,000 seats nationwide. More than 6% of
the candidates were women. The alliance of reformists and moderate-conservatives won control
of the municipal councils of Iran’s largest cities, including all 21 seats on the Tehran municipal
council. The term of the existing councils expired in September 2017 and a reformist official,
Mohammad Ali Najafi, replaced Qalibaf as Tehran mayor. However, Najafi resigned in March
2018 after criticism for his viewing of a dance performance by young girls celebrating a national
holiday. The mayor, as of November 2018, is Pirouz Hanachi.
Second-Term Cabinet
Rouhani was sworn into a second term in early August 2017. His second-term cabinet
nominations retained most of the same officials in key posts, including Foreign Minister Zarif.
Since the Trump Administration withdrew from the JCPOA in May 2018, hardliners have
threatened to try to impeach Zarif for his role in negotiating that accord. In late February 2019,
after being excluded from a leadership meeting with visiting President Bashar Al Asad of Syria,
Zarif announced his resignation over the social media application Instagram. Rouhani did not
accept the resignation and Zarif resumed his duties.
Key changes to the second-term cabinet include the following:
Minister of Justice Seyed Alireza Avayee replaced Pour-Mohammadi. Formerly a
state prosecutor, Avayee oversaw trials of protesters in the 2009 uprising and is
subject to EU travel ban and asset freeze.
Defense Minister Amir Hatami, a regular military officer, became the first non-
IRGC Defense Minister in more than 20 years and the first regular military
officer in that position.
The cabinet has two women vice presidents, and one other woman as a member
of the cabinet (but not heading any ministry).
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Upcoming Elections
The next national elections will be for the Majles, scheduled for February 21, 2020. The next
presidential elections, in which Rouhani will not be eligible to run again, will be in May or June
of 2021.
Periodic Unrest Presents Challenges
7
As noted, the regime has faced periodic flare-ups of significant unrest.
In December 2017, protests erupted in more than 80 cities, mostly based on economic conditions
but reflecting opposition to Iran’s leadership and the expenditure of resources on interventions
throughout the Middle East. Some protesters were apparently motivated by Rouhani’s 2018-2019
budget proposals to increase funds for cleric-run businesses (“bonyads”) and the IRGC. The
government defused the unrest by coupling acknowledgment of the right to protest and the
legitimacy of some demonstrator grievances with use of repressive force and a shut down of
access to social media sites such as the messaging system called “Telegram.”Khamene’i at first
attributed the unrest to covert action by Iran’s foreign adversaries, particularly the United States,
but he later acknowledged unspecified “problems” in the administration of justice.
8
Iranian
official media reported that 25 were killed and nearly 4,000 were arrested during that unrest.
During 2018-19, small protests and other acts of defiance took place, including shop closures in
the Tehran bazaar in July 2018 and protests by some women against the strict public dress code.
In addition, workers in various industries, including trucking and teaching, have conducted strikes
to demand higher wages to help cope with rising prices. In early 2019, protests took place in
southwestern Iran in response to the government’s missteps in dealing with the effects of
significant flooding in that area. The regime tasked the leadership of the relief efforts to the IRGC
and IRGC-QF, working with Iraqi Shia militias who are powerful on the Iraqi side of the border
where the floods took place.
In mid-2018, possibly to try to divert blame for Iran’s economic situation, the regime established
special “anti-corruption courts” that have, in some cases, imposed the death penalty on
businessmen accused of taking advantage of reimposed sanctions for personal profit.
9
Iran also
has used military action against armed factions that are based or have support outside Iran.
Significant unrest, on the scale of that of late 2017, flared again on November 15, 2019, in
response to a sudden government announcement of a reduction in subsidies for the price of
gasoline. Prices rose 50% for amounts up to 15 gallons per month, and 300% (to about $1 per
gallon) for amounts purchased beyond that amount. The government explained the subsidy
reduction as a consensus government decision that was necessary in order to increase cash
transfers to the poorest 75% of the population. To counter the protests, the government used a
strategy similar to the one it used in 2017: allowing peaceful protests, using repression against
violent acts, and shutting down access to the Internet and social media. As he has done in past
periods of unrest, Supreme Leader Khamene’i blamed the protests on agitation by foreign
7
The following information is derived from a wide range of press reporting in major newspapers and websites
subsequent to December 28, 2017. Some activist sources report widely different numbers of protest sizes, cities
involved, numbers killed or arrested, and other figures. CRS has no way to corroborate exact numbers cited.
8
https://www.wsj.com/articles/irans-khamenei-recognizes-protesters-grievances-1515511134; National Council of
Resistance, “Khamene’i’s Belated Confession to Injustice and Inability to Revform, a Desperate Attempt to Escape
Overthrow,” February 19, 2018.
9
Erin Cunningham. “In Iran, Graft Can Lead to the Gallows.” Washington Post, December 1, 2018.
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powers, while also accusing exiled opposition groups of involvement, and threatened a broad
crackdown. He also stated that dissatisfaction over the fuel price hikes was “understandable” but
he backed the increase as necessary. On November 19, 2019, amid Iran government assertions
that protests were subsiding, Amnesty International asserted that 106 protesters had been killed by
security forces in 21 cities since the unrest broke out; this is far higher than the single-digit
numbers of deaths asserted by the government.
10
As of November 20, it is difficult to gauge from
open sources the extent to which, if at all, the protests are ongoing, but President Rouhani stated
that day that the regime had achieved “victory” and had put down the unrest.
The Trump Administration and other senior officials have supported each wave of protests by
warning the regime against using force and expressing solidarity with the protesters. In response
to the 2017 unrest, the Administration requested U.N. Security Council meetings to consider
Iran’s crackdown on the unrest, although no formal U.N. action was taken, and sanctioned then-
judiciary chief Sadeq Larijani. On November 18, 2019, Secretary of State Pompeo stated, “The
United States is monitoring the ongoing protests closely. We condemn strongly any acts of
violence committed by this regime against the Iranian people and are deeply concerned by reports
of several fatalities. We’ve been at that since the beginning of this administration.”
11
In the 115
th
Congress, several resolutions supported the protestors, including H.Res. 676 (passed
House January 9, 2018), S.Res. 367, H.Res. 675, and S.Res. 368.
10
Amnesty International. “Iran: More than 100 protesters believed to be killed as top officials give green light to crush
protests.” November 19, 2019.
11
Press Briefing by Secretary Pompeo.” November 18, 2019.
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Demographics/Ethnic and Religious Minorities
General. Iran’s population is about 83 million persons. About 60% is Persian; about 20%-25% is Azeri; about 7%
are Kurds; about 4% are Arabs; and about 2% are Baluchis. Iran is about 99% Muslim, of which more than 90% are
Shiites; about 8% are Sunnis; and 1% are Jewish, Christian, Zoroastrian, Baha’i’, or other.
Azeris. Azeris, who have a Turkic ethnicity, are predominant in northern Iran, particularly in areas bordering
Azerbaijan. Azeris in Iran are mostly well integrated into government and society (Khamene’i himself is of Azeri
heritage), but many Azeris complain of ethnic and linguistic discrimination. Each year, there are arrests of Azeris
who press for their right to celebrate their culture and history. The government accuses them of separatism.
Christians. Christians, who number about 300,000, are a “protected minority” with three seats reserved in the
Majles. The majority of Christians in Iran are ethnic Armenians, with Assyrian Christians contributing about
10,000-20,000 practitioners. The IRGC scrutinizes churches and Christian religious practice, and numerous
Christians remain incarcerated for actions related to religious practice, including using wine in services. At times,
there have been unexplained assassinations of pastors in Iran, as well as prosecutions for converting from Islam to
Christianity and for proselytizing. One Pastor, Yousef Nadarkhani, has been repeatedly arrested.
Kurds. There are about 5 million-11 million Kurds in Iran. The Kurdish language is not banned, but schools do not
teach it and Kurdish political organizations and media outlets are routinely closed for supporting greater Kurdish
autonomy or for allegedly supporting Kurdish armed factions. In May 2015, violent unrest broke out in the
Kurdish city of Mahabad after a local woman was killed in a hotel there while with a member of Iran’s intelligence
services. Iranian Kurds recruited by the Islamic State terrorist organization attacked Iran’s parliament and the
tomb of Ayatollah Khomeini in June 2017, killing 17 persons.
Arabs. Ethnic Arabs are prominent in southwestern Iran, particularly Khuzestan Province, where they are widely
referred to as Ahwazi Arabs. The approximately 3 million Arabs in Iran encounter systematic oppression and
discrimination, including torture and a prohibition on speaking or studying Arabic.
Baluchis. Iran has about 1.4 million Baluchis, living primarily in poorly developed and economically depressed
southeastern Iran, in the area bordering Pakistan. Baluchis in Iran are mostly Sunni Muslims.
Jews. Also a “recognized minority” with one seat in the Majles, the approximately 10,000-member (according to
the Tehran Jewish Committee) Jewish community enjoys substantial freedoms. However, the Iranian government
sometimes promotes anti-Semitic rhetoric in state-sanctioned media. Then-President Ahmadinejad often
questioned the existence of the Holocaust. In June 1999, Iran arrested 13 Jews that it said were part of an
“espionage ring” for Israel, and 10 were convicted. All were released by April 2003.
Baha’is. There are an estimated 20,000 Baha’is in Iran, where this religion started, based on a 19
th
century self-
declared Iranian prophet named Baha’ullah. The regime has subjected the Baha’is to unrelenting repression as
members of what it describes as a “heretical” religion. Baha’i leaders have been repeated imprisoned, land and
property of Baha’i adherents has been seized, Baha’is are banned from serving in government, and are routinely
discriminated against for employment. Virtually yearly congressional resolutions have condemned the repression
of Iran’s Baha’is. The March 17, 2017, report of the U.N. Special Rapporteur on Iran (A/HRC/34/65) contained an
extensive appendix listing Baha’is in prison in Iran. Two of seven Baha’i leaders (the ”Yaran”) sentenced in 2008 to
20 years imprisonment for espionage were released in the fall of 2018; the other five remain in jail.
Sufis. In February 2018, Iran arrested 300 Sufis demanding the release of their fellow faith members. Hundreds of
Sufis remain in prison for their religious beliefs. Human Rights Watch characterized the arrests as “one of the
largest crackdowns against a religious minority in Iran in a decade.”
Iran: Internal Politics and U.S. Policy and Options
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Human Rights Practices
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U.S. State Department reports and reports from a U.N. Special Rapporteur have long cited Iran
for a wide range of abuses—aside from its suppression of political opposition and use of force
against protesters—including escalating use of capital punishment, executions of minors, denial
of fair public trial, harsh and life-threatening conditions in prison, and unlawful detention and
torture. In a speech on Iran on July 22, 2018, Secretary of State Pompeo recited a litany of U.S.
accusations of Iranian human rights abuses, and stated “America is unafraid to expose human
rights violations and support those who are being silenced.” Other than the release of U.S. and
dual-nationals held, curtailing Iran’s human rights abuses has not been named as a U.S. condition
for improved relations.
State Department and U.N. Special Rapporteur reports have noted that the 2013 revisions to the
Islamic Penal Code and the 2015 revisions to the Criminal Procedure Code made some reforms,
including eliminating death sentences for children convicted of drug-related offenses and
protecting the rights of the accused. A “Citizen’s Rights Charter,” issued December 19, 2016, at
least nominally protects free expression and is intended to raise public awareness of citizen rights.
It also purportedly commits the government to implement the charter’s 120 articles. In August
2017, Rouhani appointed a woman, former vice president Shahindokht Molaverdi, to oversee
implementation of the charter. The State Department’s human rights report for 2018 says that key
charter protections for individual rights of freedom to communicate and access information have
not been implemented.
A U.N. Special Rapporteur on Iran human rights was reestablished in March 2011 by the U.N.
Human Rights Council (22 to 7 vote), resuming work done by a Special Rapporteur on Iran
human rights during 1988-2002. The rapporteur appointed in 2016, Asma Jahangir, issued two
Iran reports, the latest of which was dated August 14, 2017 (A/72/322), before passing away in
February 2018. The Special Rapporteur mandate was extended on March 24, 2018, and British-
Pakistani lawyer Javaid Rehman was appointed in July 2018. The U.N. General Assembly has
insisted that Iran cooperate by allowing the Special Rapporteur to visit Iran, but Iran has instead
only responded to Special Rapporteur inquiries through agreed “special procedures.”
Despite the criticism of its human rights record, on April 29, 2010, Iran acceded to the U.N.
Commission on the Status of Women. It also sits on the boards of the U.N. Development Program
(UNDP) and UNICEF. Iran’s U.N. dues are about $9 million per year.
12
Much of the information in this section comes from the State Department human rights report for 2018:
https://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm#wrapper.
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