Figure 5.2
Comparison of the original analog waveform with the quantized version, based on
8 levels (or 3 bits).
5.1
Digital Baseband Signals and Hierarchies
157
S/N
q
=
2
2
M
where
M
is the number of bits per sample. The same formula [1] can be expressed
in decibels as follows:
S/N
q
=
2
M
⭈
10 log 2
=
6.02
⭈
M
The importance of having enough bits per analog sample is evident in this relation-
ship. The main features of the A/D and D/A converter that affect end-to-end
performance include the following:
•
Resolution, specified in terms of the number of bits in the digital code used
to represent each sample. An 8-bit code, for example, can represent 2
8
−
1
(i.e., 255) different levels. The more bits in the code, the more steps and
hence, the smaller the range of each level. That improves the resolution and
hence the accuracy (including S/N
q
) with which the sample can be reproduced
on the other end.
•
Speed, based on how fast the device can perform a conversion.
•
Sampling rate, the number of times per second the analog signal is sampled
and converted into the code word. The minimum sampling rate is determined
by the baseband bandwidth of the analog input. For Nyquist-type A/D
converters, the sampling rate is at least twice the highest baseband frequency.
An oversampling A/D converter operates at an elevated sampling rate, in
the range of 2 to 64 times the highest baseband frequency. That facilitates
other digital processing steps, such as compression.
•
Linearity, the deviation from precise recreation of the input signal over the
entire range of minimum to maximum signal voltage range. That, in turn,
determines the reproduction fidelity of the combined A/D and D/A process.
•
Dynamic range, also related to linearity and resolution, indicates the spread
of analog voltage levels that are tolerated with acceptable fidelity.
This is possibly more detail about A/D conversion than most readers would
care to know. However, it does bring to light the criticality of choosing the right
parameters for the conversion, lest the result be unacceptable to users. In the case
of telephone service, the standard sampling rate is 8 kHz (8,000 times per second),
which is slightly more than twice the highest signal frequency (i.e., 3,400 Hz).
With regard to quantization, good telephone quality is obtainable with 128 levels
(seven bits when coded in binary). Standard pulse code modulation (PCM) adds
an eighth bit for synchronization, yielding a transmission speed of 64 kbps per
telephone channel. Companding in the form of nonequal levels is used to help
overcome some of the quantization error and channel noise by expanding low
audio volume on transmit and compressing them on receive.
Another important consideration in satellite network design is the number of
times that an analog information source might be exposed to the A/D and D/A
process. The example of an end-to-end communication link in Figure 5.3 shows
how an analog input can experience four conversions on the way to the distant
158
Modulation, Multiple Access, and Impairments
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