Introduction, Lexicology as a science

Principles of morphemic analysis.
In most cases the morphemic structure of words is transparent enough and individual morphemes clearly stand out within the word. The segmentation of words is generally carried out according to the method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents. This method is based on the binary principle, i.e. each stage of the procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into. At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate Constituents. Each Immediate Constituent at the next stage of analysis is in turn broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of further division, i.e. morphemes. These are referred to Ultimate Constituents.
A synchronic morphological analysis is most effectively accomplished by the procedure known as the analysis into Immediate Constituents. ICs are the two meaningful parts forming a large linguistic unity.
The method is based on the fact that a word characterized by morphological divisibility is involved in certain structural correlations. To sum up: as we break the word we obtain at any level only ICs one of which is the stem of the given word. All the time the analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English vocabulary. As a pattern showing the interdependence of all the constituents segregated at various stages, we obtain the following formula:
^un+ { un( gentle ) + -man ] + -ly}
Breaking a word into its Immediate Constituents we observe in each cut the structural order of the constituents.
A diagram presenting the four cuts described looks as follows:
1. un- / gentlemanly
2. un- / gentleman / - ly
3. un- / gentle / - man / - ly
4. un- / gentl / - e / - man / - ly
A similar analysis on the word-formation level showing not only the morphemic constituents of the word but also the structural pattern on which it is built.
The analysis of word-structure at the morphemic level must proceed to the stage of Ultimate Constituents, For example, the noun “friendliness” is first segmented into the ICs: friend recurring in the adjectives friendly-looking and friendly and ness found in a countless number of nouns, such as unhappiness, blackness, sameness, etc. the 1C ness is at the same time an UC of the word, as it cannot be broken into any smaller elements possessing both sound-form and meaning. Any further division of -ness would give individual speech-sounds which denote nothing by themselves. The 1C friendly is next broken into the ICs friend and “ly” which are both UCs of the word.
Morphemic analysis under the method of Ultimate Constituents may be carried out on the basis of two principles: the so-called root-principle and affix principle.
According to the affix principle the splitting of the word into its constituent morphemes is based on the identification of the affix within a set of words, e.g. the identification of the suffix -er leads to the segmentation of words singer, teacher, swimmer into the derivational morpheme - er and the roots teach- , sing-, drive-.
According to the root-principle, the segmentation of the word is based on the identification of the root-morpheme in a word-cluster, for example the identification of the root-morpheme agree- in the words agreeable, agreement, disagree.
As a rule, the application of these principles is sufficient for the morphemic segmentation of words.
However, the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases is not always so transparent and simple as in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or receive, deceive, conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [re], [de] seem to be singled quite easily, on the other hand, they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes re-, de- as found in words re-write, re­organize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, the [-tavn] or [-si:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning because [re] distinguishes retain from detain and [-tain] distinguishes retain from receive.
It follows that all these sound-clusters have a differential and a certain distributional meaning as their order arrangement point to the afflxal status of re-, de-, con-, per- and makes one understand -tain and -ceive as roots. The differential and distributional meanings seem to give sufficient ground to recognize these sound-clusters as morphemes, but as they lack lexical meaning of their own, they are set apart from all other types of morphemes and are known in linguistic literature as pseudo- morphemes.
When we analyse the word we compare the word with other words which have the same morphemes. The word «denationa!ize» may be divided into «de» and «nationalize», because «de» can be found in the structure of such words as «deform», «denature», «denominate». The remaining part «nationalize» can be broken into «national» and «ize»: the reason is the same (organize, hcmanize, standardize etc). «National» — into «nation» and «al» because «al» occurs in a number of words such as: occupational, musical, conditional etc). At each stage of the process we receive two ultimate constituents. The part of the word «denationalize» de,-nation,al-,ize-_r are ultimate constituents because they can not be divided further. They are morphemes. This analysis of word structure is known as the morphemic analysis.
Morphemes are divided into two: free and bound. Free morpheme is a morpheme which is identical with the word-form. In our example only «nation» can be said as a free morpheme, as it is like a wordform and can be used in isolation, de-.-al, -ize, are bound morphemes because they can't be used separately and do not coincide with wordforms.
According to the number of morphemes words are divided into monomorphemic and polymorphemic. Monomerphemic words consist of one root — morpheme. Ex. boy, girl, dog, cat. Polymorphimic words consist of more than two morphe­mes. Ex. teach/er, un/reason/able. Morphemes are arranged in the word according to certain rules. The relations within the word and the interrelations between different types and classes of words are called derivational relations. The basic unit at the derivational level is the stem. The stem is apart of the word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm.