International congress of byzantine studies belgrade, 22 27 august 2016

Christina Sideri
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece; 
[e-mail]
Orality and Audience in Theophanes Continuatus
Preserving the ancient practice of reading out loud, the text of the so-called Theophanes 
Continuatus (henceforth ThCont), a historical piece of work commissioned and supervised 
by emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos (945-959, henceforth ConstPorph), was in all 
probability intended for audition.
Already from the preamble one can sense that the reader, who addresses the emperor in the 
second person, is performing a rhetorical recital before him in the presence of a limited circle of 
officials/scholars. Besides, the text of the first four books of ThCont but also its fifth, known as the 
Vita Basilii (henceforth VB), contains terms which relate to reading but also imply hearing (VB 246. 
6-7, 274.14-15, 282.10-11, 202. 2-3, ThCont 76. 6-10). We can also add the--not much later--heading 
λόγος found in books I-IV, that could also be suggestive of a reading before a θέατρον. Furthermore, 
the frequent use of structure words (ὅθεν, γοῦν, ἀλλὰ and the like) attests to a forceful orality, while 
the recurrent presence of transition words, clauses or sentences which solidify the historical narrative 
strengthens the hypothesis that the writer composed his work for recitation. In fact, these specific 
techniques or formulas would, quite apart from contributing to the creation of a more coherent and 
cohesive text, also activate the memory of the audience and facilitate its understanding during its 
reading. At the same time, even if deemed to be later additions, the ἐκφράσεις of buildings included 
at the end of book III and in the VB are in fact rhetorical descriptions provided for a session of 
reading out loud.
It is widely accepted that the sole purpose of reading in Byzantium was almost always benefit. 
ThCont is indeed of an educational character; this historical compilation is delivered “ὥσπερ τι 
κοινὸν διδασκαλεῖον...πᾶσιν» and mainly «τοῖς σπουδαίοις», as the latter are capable of drawing 
out useful elements, even from narration of the reigns of vicious emperors (preamble to ThCont.) 
Similarly, in the preface to the VB, the emperor confesses his manifest wish “to instil the experience 
and knowledge of public affairs into the minds ‘τῶν σπουδαιοτέρων› through the ever-memorable 
and immortal voice of history». But in the description of constructions ascribed to the founder of 
the Macedonian dynasty, too, the VB expressly notes that «since such beauties are not accessible 
to every eye, we have been obliged to offer them to the ‘σπουδαῖοι›, so that in such a fashion their 
maker may be worthily admired, and those who have no access to the imperial quarters may not 
remain totally ignorant of them”.
It is therefore clear that the history written upon ConstPorph’s orders is intended for the 
σπουδαῖοι. The question is to whom this quality is attributed. Philosophically, the notion is associated 
with virtue --above all, its political aspect. The σπουδαῖοι equal the μὴ ῥᾳθυμότερον ζῶντες, 
referred to in the preamble to ThCont, to whom history is bequeathed: i.e. the active citizens. On 
the other hand, it is commonly known that, according to Psellos, readers can be divided into three 
categories: περιττοὶ or λόγιοι ἄνδρες, who may be superior in terms of knowledge, thinking and 

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language; σπουδαῖοι or ἐλλόγιμοι ἀκροαταί, meaning sophisticated readers or listeners; and πολλοὶ 
or ἰδιώτιδες ἀκοαί, that is the uncultured audience. The second category, which is of interest here, 
consists of individuals with an average or at least not the highest level of culture. Such a group would 
incorporate a number of people –mainly public servants or military men – who had completed 
their studies at the first level of προγυμνάσματα, which made up the basis of rhetoric at the time; 
they would thus receive a decent education, but would not reach a higher level of learning. Finally, 
the preamble to the VB reveals that this biography aspires to become a model of virtue and set an 
example to the heirs of the Macedonian dynasty. In that same preamble, but also in the description 
of Basil I’s construction activity, it states explicitly, as we saw above, that the VB is aimed at the 
σπουδαῖοι. Could this therefore mean that the latter are the royal heirs themselves? However, those 
who were included in the category of σπουδαῖοι but excluded from the imperial palace would only 
know about it through historical writings. Therefore, the VB was obviously also bequeathed to 
people who were not members of the ruling family.
ThCont’s readership should thus not be confined to the reigning house; instead it expanded to 
include officials of the court who would be politically active and would have received a certain level 
of education, though not the highest. These are the φιλομαθοῦντες and φιλιστοροῦντες ὑπήκοοι of 
the emperor to whom ThCont is addressed.