6. Clearing Agreement-
A clearing agreement is clearing account barter with
no currency transaction required. With a line of credit being established in the
central banks of the two countries, the trade in this case is continuous, and the
exchange of products between two governments is designed to achieve an
agreed-on value or volume of trade tabulated or calculated in nonconvertible
"clearing account units." For example, the former Soviet Union's rationing of
hard currency limited imports and payment of copiers. Rank Xerox decided to
circumvent the problem by making copiers in India for sale to the Soviets under
the country's "clearing" agreement with India. The contract set forth goods, ratio
of exchange, and time length for completion. Any imbalances after the end of
the year were settled by credit into the next year, acceptance of unwanted goods,
payment of penalty, or hard currency payment. Although nonconvertible in
theory, clearing units in practice can be sold at a discount to trad-ing specialists
who use them to buy salable products.
Problems and Opportunities
Although counter trade is a common and growing practice, it has been criticized
on several fronts. First, counter trade is considered by some as a form of
protectionism that poses a new threat to world trade. Such countries as Sweden,
Australia, Spain, Brazil, Indonesia, and much of Eastern Europe demand
reciprocity in order to impose a discipline on their balance of payments. In other
words, imports must be offset by exports. Indonesia links government import
requirements in contracts worth more than Rp. 500 million to the export of
Indonesian products, other than oil and natural gas, in an equivalent amount to
the foreign-exchange value of the contract. Mexico took a hard line in 1981
against foreign automakers by ordering them to earn back hard currency if they
wanted to stay in business with Mexico. As a result, VW de Mexico had to
purchase and export Mexican coffee. Nissan Mexicana agreed to accept coffee,
horsemeat, chickpeas, and honey. Brazil enacted a similar requirement and was
able to extract agreements from foreign-owned automobile and truck makers to
export nearly $21 billion worth of vehicles and other products in return for the
right to import duty-free parts for their Brazilian plants. Despite this charge,
there is evidence that counter trade does not necessarily restrict the overall trade
volume.
Second, counter trade is alleged to be nothing but "covert dumping." To
compensate any supplying partners for the nuisance of taking another-product as
payment, a counter trading country frequently trades its products away at a
discount. If the counter trading country discounts directly by selling its goods
itself in another market instead of through a foreign firm, dumping would
clearly occur. But according to an International Trade Commission study, the
practice does not seem to be harmful to the United States. Counter trade activity
actually results in U.S. exports always greatly exceeding the value of imports.
Thus, it would appear that many products that U.S. firms agree to take from
their customers for overseas marketing are not dumped back in the U.S. market.
Third, counter trade is alleged to increase overhead costs and ultj.n1ately the
price of a product. Counter trade involves time, personnel, and expenses in
selling a customer's product-often at a discount. If another middleman is used to
dispose of the product a commission must also be paid. Because of these
expenses, a selling company has to raise- the price of the original order to
compensate for such expenses as well as for the risk of taking another product in
return as payment. The fact that the goods are saleable--either for other goods
or, in the end, for cash somewhere else means that additional and probably
unnecessary costs must be incurred. As explained by Fitzgerald, "Counter trade
requirements, like any trade restrictions, increase the cost of doing business.
These cost cannot be passed into the international market but must be borne
within the country imposing the requirements." It is believed that barter
transactions are responsible for reducing Russia's revenues by 500 billion rubles.
Related to this charge of increasing costs is the problem of marketing unwanted
merchandise that may remain unsold? A company may have to take on the
added job of marketing its customer's goods if it does not want to lose business
to rivals who are willing to do so. GE lost a major sale of CAT scanners to
Austrian hospitals after Siemens agreed to preserve 4,000 jobs by stepping up
production of unrelated electronic goods within its Austrian plants. McDonnell
Douglas was able to secure a contract to sell 250 planes to former Yugoslavia
only after agreeing to market such Yugoslav goods as hams and other foods,
textiles, leather goods, wine, beer, mineral water, and tours. The company had a
difficult time selling the $5 million worth of hams and finally did so to its own
employees and suppliers. With Regard to the Yugoslavian tours, the best the
company could do was to offer the trips as incentives to employees.
Financing, essential in virtually all types of conventional transactions, becomes
more complicated in the case of counter trade this is especially true when the
sale of one product is contingent on the purchase of an unrelated product in
return. Understandably, banks may hesitate to provide credit for such a deal
because of their concern that the exporter may not be able to profitably dispose
of the product given to the exporter as payment.
When a company is unable or does not want to be concerned with disposing of
the product taken from its customer, it can turn to companies that act as
intermediaries. The intermediaries may agree to dispose of the merchandise for a
commission or they may agree to buy the goods outright. The Mediators is one
such middleman organization that operates a $500 million a year business
globally.
An examination of counter trade literature found that an overwhelming number
of the published articles were theoretical rather than empirical. There are a few
empirical studies, however, that have shed some light on the practice of counter
trade. According to one model, developing countries, which impose counter
trade, have these characteristics: declining foreign exchange reserves,
commodity terms of trade, and balance of trade and increasing debt-service
ratios. There is some evidence that these variables can help exporters identify
those countries, which are likely to be counter traders.
The results of one study dispel some widely held views about counter trade.
First the relationship between a country's credit rating and its propensity to
counter trade is not as strong as commonly believed. Second, buyback and
counter purchase are substitutes .to foreign direct investment. Third, there is a
surprisingly large volume of counter trade between developing countries
themselves. Fourth, each counter trade type seems to have its own separate
motivation. Barter -allows exchange without the use of money and explicit
prices. Barter is therefore useful in order to bypass: (1) exchange controls, (2)
public or private price controls, and (3) a creditors' monitoring of imports.
Those firms that tend to benefit from counter trade are the following: (1) large
firms that have extensive trade operations from large, complex products; (2)
vertically integrated firms that can accommodate counter trade take backs; and
(3) firms that trade with countries that have inappropriate exchange rates,
rationed foreign exchange, import restrictions, and importers inexperienced in
assessing technology or in export marketing. In contrast firms whose
characteristics are the opposite of those just enumerated are likely to encounter
significant barriers to counter trade operations and to receive few benefits.
In general, the U.S. government is opposed to government-mandated counter
trade. However, recognizing that counter trade is a fact of life, the U.S.
government has maintained a hands-off policy toward counter trade
arrangements that do not have government intervention or those American
exporters choose to pursue. It does not oppose participation by American firms
in counter trade transactions when they do not have a negative impact on
national security. But the U.S. policy prohibits federal agencies from promoting
counter trade in their business and official contacts.
Interestingly, the U.S. government itself has published a guide on counter trade
practices so that U.S. firms can take advantage of marketing opportunities in the
former Soviet Union. The irony is that the Russian government, seeking hard
currency earnings, now appears to prefer cash transactions and has begun to
discourage counter trade transactions of marketable commodities. Still, those
Russian products that do not have a ready market probably will still require
some form of counter trade.
There is no question that counter trade is a cumbersome process. Yet a firm is
unwise not to consider it. Much like other trade practices, counter trade presents
both problems and opportunities. More often than not, problems of counter trade
are more psychological rather than real obstacles. Problems can be overcome.
One need only remember that in the final analysis all goods can be converted
into cash.
E-commerce transactions
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