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[N. Gregory(N. Gregory Mankiw) Mankiw] Principles (BookFi)

permanent in-
come,
which is its normal, or average, income.
To gauge inequality of living standards, the distribution of permanent income
is more relevant than the distribution of annual income. Although permanent in-
come is hard to measure, it is an important concept. Because permanent income
excludes transitory changes in income, permanent income is more equally distrib-
uted than is current income.
p e r m a n e n t i n c o m e
a person’s normal income
H
OW MANY PEOPLE LIVE IN POVERTY
? T
HE
answer is a topic of continuing debate.
D e v i s i n g N e w M a t h
t o D e f i n e P o v e r t y
B
Y
L
OUIS
U
CHITELLE
The Census Bureau has begun to revise
its definition of what constitutes poverty
in the United States, experimenting with
a formula that would drop millions of
more families below the poverty line.
The bureau’s new approach would
in effect raise the income threshold for
living above poverty to $19,500 for a
family of four, from the $16,600 now
considered sufficient. Suddenly, 46 mil-
lion Americans, or 17 percent of the pop-
ulation, would be recognized as officially
below the line, not the 12.7 percent an-
nounced last month, the lowest in nearly
a decade. . . .
Fixing a poverty line has always been
a subjective endeavor. The current for-
mula was created for President Lyndon B.
Johnson to keep score on his “war on
poverty” and has remained unchanged
since 1965 except for adjustments for in-
flation. . . . The Census Bureau’s new Ex-
perimental Measures are an effort to
determine what poor people must spend
on food, clothing, housing, and life’s little
extras.
“There is no scientific way to set a
new poverty line,” said Rebecca M.
Blank, dean of the School of Social Pol-
icy at the University of Michigan. “What
there is here are a set of judgment calls,
now being made, about what is needed
to lift people to a socially acceptable
standard of living.” . . .
Ordinary Americans, in opinion polls,
draw the poverty line above $20,000,
saying it takes at least that much, if not
more, to “get along in their community,”
to “live decently,” or to avoid hardship.
But a higher threshold means gov-
ernment spending would rise to pay for
benefits tied to the poverty level, like
food stamps and Head Start. That would
require an incursion into the budget sur-
plus that neither Republicans nor De-
mocrats seek.
Not surprising, the White House,
which would have to authorize a change
in the poverty formula, is proceeding
cautiously. “We have at least a couple of
years more work to do,” an Administra-
tion official said, passing the decision for
redefining poverty to the next adminis-
tration.
S
OURCE
:
The New York Times,
October 18, 1999,
pp. A1, A14.
I N T H E N E W S
Measuring Poverty


4 4 6
PA R T S I X
T H E E C O N O M I C S O F L A B O R M A R K E T S
E C O N O M I C M O B I L I T Y
People sometimes speak of “the rich” and “the poor” as if these groups consisted
of the same families year after year. In fact, this is not at all the case. Economic mo-
bility, the movement of people among income classes, is substantial in the U.S.
economy. Movements up the income ladder can be due to good luck or hard work,
and movements down the ladder can be due to bad luck or laziness. Some of this
mobility reflects transitory variation in income, while some reflects more persis-
tent changes in income.
Because economic mobility is so great, many of those below the poverty line
are there only temporarily. Poverty is a long-term problem for relatively few fam-
ilies. In a typical ten-year period, about one in four families falls below the poverty
line in at least one year. Yet fewer than 3 percent of families are poor for eight or
more years. Because it is likely that the temporarily poor and the persistently poor
face different problems, policies that aim to combat poverty need to distinguish
between these groups.
Another way to gauge economic mobility is the persistence of economic suc-
cess from generation to generation. Economists who have studied this topic find
substantial mobility. If a father earns 20 percent above his generation’s average in-
come, his son will most likely earn 8 percent above his generation’s average in-
come. There is almost no correlation between the income of a grandfather and the
income of a grandson. There is much truth to the old saying, “From shirtsleeves to
shirtsleeves in three generations.”
One result of this great economic mobility is that the U.S. economy is filled
with self-made millionaires (as well as with heirs who squandered the fortunes
they inherited). According to estimates for 1996, about 2.7 million households in
the United States had net worth (assets minus debts) that exceeded $1 million.
These households represented the richest 2.8 percent of the population. About four
out of five of these millionaires made their money on their own, such as by start-
ing and building a business or by climbing the corporate ladder. Only one in five
millionaires inherited their fortunes.
Q U I C K Q U I Z :
What does the poverty rate measure?

Describe three 
potential problems in interpreting the measured poverty rate.
T H E P O L I T I C A L P H I L O S O P H Y
O F R E D I S T R I B U T I N G I N C O M E
We have just seen how the economy’s income is distributed and have considered
some of the problems in interpreting measured inequality. This discussion was 
pos-
itive
in the sense that it merely described the world as it is. We now turn to the 
nor-
mative
question facing policymakers: What should the government do about
economic inequality?
This question is not just about economics. Economic analysis alone cannot tell
us whether policymakers should try to make our society more egalitarian. Our
views on this question are, to a large extent, a matter of political philosophy. Yet


C H A P T E R 2 0
I N C O M E I N E Q U A L I T Y A N D P O V E R T Y
4 4 7
because the government’s role in redistributing income is central to so many de-
bates over economic policy, here we digress from economic science to consider a
bit of political philosophy.
U T I L I TA R I A N I S M
A prominent school of thought in political philosophy is 

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