interactional
versus
transactional
discourse does not account for the language
present at one of the major sites for research into family discourse – the dinner table.
Many of the studies into family mealtimes demonstrate how, on the surface, language
appears interactional, however, they also point to it containing elements of the
transactional (for examples of studies of this type see Chapter 2).
Copeland and White (1991) maintain that families have a shared history that stretches
back generations and this may influence their linguistic practices. They claim that:
The participants in a family research study bring to every interaction expectations
about each other based to prior experience and family myth. Of course, these
expectations are often unstated, maybe even denied but are inalterably present
nonetheless (p. 4-5).
Therefore, a particular family may have rules built around, for example, turn-taking that
may differ to those of other families (this point is further explored in Chapter 3 in
12
relation to community of practice). This, consequently, makes it difficult to generalise
about the overall nature of family discourse. Therefore, a methodology involving small-
scale corpus linguistics such as the one employed in the present study may be more
suited to this context-type (see Section 4.3). In addition, Copeland and White (
ibid
.)
argue that families have a shared future and this may have implications about what a
family ‘says’ during the research process. They maintain that families are constantly
engaged in a process of actively co-constructing their future relationships through
discourse and, therefore, their input into the research situation may be affected. They
cite the example of a family being asked to discuss a series of issues together as a group.
Although they do not specifically refer to a sociolinguistic interview, it is typical
procedure in family research that an entire family is present for the interview, especially
if young children are involved. In these sociolinguistic interviews comments are neither
confidential nor anonymous. Therefore, a researcher in this situation must acknowledge
the fact that a family needs to ‘get on’ once the research is finished, and this may have
an impact on the data being collected. The present study aims to offset some of these
issues by studying their everyday linguistic practices and encouraging the families to
record themselves speaking in their own homes, thereby removing any element of
formality and artificiality that can be present in situations such as interviews or
discourse completion tests (see Chapter 4).
The present study focuses on the pragmatic features of the language of two families for
a number of reasons. The first reason addresses a concern with regard to the research
process. As will be discussed in Section 1.4, the datasets derived from the recordings are
relatively small especially in comparison to modern spoken corpora and, therefore, are
open to criticisms regarding representativeness (see Chapter 4). However, the pragmatic
items chosen for analysis – person, place and time reference and markers of relational
language such as vocatives and hedges – are ubiquitous across many spoken context-
types, often appearing at the very top of corpus word frequency lists (see Section 4.3).
Biber (1990, 1993) maintains that the underlying parameters of linguistic variation can
be replicated in a relatively small corpus, if that corpus represents the full range of
variation. He suggests that the higher the frequency of the item under consideration, the
13
smaller the amount of representative data required. Furthermore, the present study seeks
to highlight the importance of small corpora in variational pragmatic research. Burnard
(2000) remarks that, due to the fact that mega-corpora such as the British National
Corpus (BNC)
4
are not monitor corpora, ‘it is a rather depressing thought that linguists
of this century may continue to study the language of the nineties for as long as those of
the preceding one were constrained to study that of the sixties.’ Small corpora are
relatively easily assembled and analysed which results in ‘current’ linguistic knowledge.
Small, register-specific corpora also afford the opportunity to examine localised nuances
in pragmatic use rather than seeking to formulate generalisations (this point will also be
further discussed in Chapter 4).
The present study also seeks to contribute to the existing research of intra-varietal
pragmatic variation in Irish English by looking at how two groups of Irish people vary
their language use patterns in one specific context. An examination of the research into
Traveller language in Section 1.1.3 reveals a raft of studies conducted in the 1980s and
early 1990s. These studies demonstrate the traditional sociolinguistic focus on aspects
of language form rather than language use. Therefore, our knowledge of the total
linguistic repertoires of Travellers in Ireland is still very limited. This argument can also
be extended to the settled community and to Irish English in general. Much of the
ground breaking work on the description of Irish English concerned its phonological,
grammatical and lexical features (see, for example, Harris, 1984; Kallen, 1990;
Filppula, 1991; Dolan, 2005; Hickey, 1995, 2004, 2007). Many of these features were
either attributed to translation from
Gaeilge
, the Irish heritage language, or to a
‘hangover’ from Ireland’s historic and geographical links with the United Kingdom.
This resulted in Irish English being portrayed as a language ‘hybrid’ rather than a
valued language variety in its own right. Recently, however, corpus-based variational
studies such as those using the Limerick Corpus of Irish English
5
(see, for example, Farr
and O’Keeffe, 2002; McCarthy and O’Keeffe, 2003; O’Keeffe and Adolphs, 2008) have
4
The British National Corpus (BNC) is a 100 million word collection of samples of written and spoken
language from a wide range of sources, designed to represent a wide cross-section of British English.
5
The Limerick Corpus of Irish English (LCIE) is a one million word corpus of spoken Southern Irish
English (for more details see Farr
et al
. 2004).
14
begun to address a general paucity of pragmatic research dealing with Irish English in
contrast with other varieties of English. In particular, Barron and Schneider’s
The
Pragmatics of Irish English
(2005) marked a paradigm shift, examining pragmatic
language use in private, official and public spheres of Irish life and contrasting them
with language use conventions in other English-speaking cultures. Work such as this is
essential to the establishment of Irish English as a recognised language variety. As
Barron and Schneider (2005: 12) maintain ‘without contrastive research, hypotheses
about the distinctiveness of Irish English, though important, remain only hypotheses.’
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