STATE JURISDICTION AND IMMUNITIES
7.1
CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: AN INTRODUCTION
Jurisdiction refers to the power of each State under international law to prescribe
and enforce its municipal laws with regard to persons and property. This power is
exercised in three forms, which correspond to the three branches of government.
Hence, legislative or prescriptive jurisdiction relates to the competence to prescribe
the ambit of municipal laws, judicial jurisdiction relates to the competence of courts
to apply national laws, and enforcement jurisdiction refers to the ability of States to
enforce the fruits of their legislative or judicial labour (for example, gathering of
evidence and infliction of sanctions). While prescriptive and judicial jurisdiction
may assume an extra-territorial character, enforcement jurisdiction generally cannot.
1
In the sense described, jurisdiction may be both civil and criminal. With the growth
of interstate commerce and movement of persons across international borders since
the 18th century, Lord Halsbury’s assertion that, ‘All crimes are local…jurisdiction
is only territorial’,
2
must be viewed as obsolete today, and applicable only to a now
diminishing British common law notion of co-inciting criminality of conduct with
the jurisdiction of the court empowered to try an offence. Until recently, there did
not exist even a general set of rules delineating conflicts of criminal jurisdiction.
While conduct occurring solely on the territory of one country could logically fall
within that country’s competence, a conflict of criminal laws existed where harmful
conduct, or its effects, were perpetrated or felt in more than one State. At the same
time, the application of the general rule, whereby a State may unilaterally lay claim
to jurisdiction in a particular case, with the sole proviso that no other rule of
international law is opposed to it,
3
creates further conflicts.
4
Not surprisingly, there
does not exist a general agreement resolving issues of concurrent criminal
jurisdiction. Problems of concurrent legislative jurisdiction, and in particular criminal
matters, are satisfactorily dealt with only where they have been regulated by treaty,
5
1
Exceptionally, some common law countries do not object to foreign consuls serving writs to persons
on their territory. Furthermore, visiting Heads of State have been permitted to perform their official
functions while abroad, such as signing decrees. See M Akehurst, Jurisdiction in International Law’,
45
BYIL
(1972–73), 145, pp 146, 150.
2
Madeod v AG for New South Wales
[1891] AC 455, p 458,
per
Lord Halsbury.
3
France v Turkey
(
Lotus
case) (1927) PCIJ Reports, Ser A, No 10; see W Estey, The Five Bases of Extra-
Territorial Jurisdiction and the Failures of the Presumption against Extra-Territoriality’, 21
Hastings
Int’l & Comp L Rev
(1997), 153; R Higgins,
Problems and Process: International Law and How We Use It,
1994, Oxford: OUP, p 77, who takes the opposite view by contending that the
Lotus
presumption
should not be relied on because it is based on a much dissented judgment.
4
It is not clear whether
Nottebohm (Guatemala v Liechtenstein)
(1955) ICJ Reports 4 and
AngloNorwegian
Fisheries (UK v Norway)
(1951) ICJ Reports 116, which limited the unilateral competence of States to
confer nationality and delimit the territorial sea through the use of straight baselines respectively,
have invalidated the
Lotus
presumption in the field of criminal jurisdiction, which now seems firmly
established in a plethora of treaties providing for the exercise of national jurisdiction akin to ‘universal’.
International Criminal Law
144
but even these subject specific treaties provide for a variety of jurisdictional bases
with no clear hierarchical order. The jurisdictional principles contained in criminal
treaties are the product of national criminal practice and, to the extent they are
uniformly applied, they may be regarded, albeit with caution, as reflecting general
principles of national law. These are the principles of territoriality, active personality
(or nationality), passive personality, universality and the protective principle.
Issues of criminal jurisdiction remain a highly contentious area of international
relations. Even where specific conduct has been regulated by treaty, jurisdiction
cannot be said to constitute a settled matter, since not only non-States parties might
oppose the said rule, but also States parties may disagree over its ambit, execution,
or hierarchical status.
6
This chapter examines the scope and nature of prescriptive
and judicial jurisdiction, as well as possible immunities available as exceptions to it
being exercised in individual cases.
7.2
TERRITORIAL JURISDICTION
States have traditionally, on account of their sovereignty, exercised a primary right
of criminal jurisdiction over offences perpetrated upon their territory.
7
Assumption
of such jurisdiction has the advantage of immediate accessibility to sources of
evidence and relevant witnesses and subsequent minimisation of expenses and
judicial time. In many cases, it may also prove to be politically expedient, where
competing claims for jurisdiction involve delicate questions of interstate relations;
especially where the exercise of extra-territorial jurisdiction would be viewed as
encroachment of another State’s sovereignty. The territoriality principle operates
well only when all the elements of an offence have taken place on the territory of the
prosecuting State. In the classic example of one person firing a shot across a frontier
and subsequently causing the death of a person on the other side, the principle of
territoriality proper gives rise to questions of primacy between two competing
5
1998 Amsterdam Treaty Amending the Treaty on the European Union, Art K3(d), reprinted in 37
ILM (1998), 56, provides that European Union (EU) States are to prevent conflicts of criminal
jurisdiction arising among themselves; in similar fashion, and for the first time articulated in an
anti-terrorist treaty, Art 7(5) of the 2000 United Nations (UN) Convention for the Suppression of the
Financing of Terrorism obliges States parties, in cases of jurisdictional conflicts, to strive to co-ordinate
their actions appropriately, ‘in particular concerning the conditions for prosecution and modalities
for mutual legal assistance’. Reprinted in 39 ILM (2000), 270.
6
See FA Mann, ‘The Doctrine of Jurisdiction in International Law’, 111
RCADI
(1964), 44, p 82, who
formulated the theory of ‘reasonable link’, according to which jurisdiction should be dependent
upon the strongest possible connection between the conduct and the claimant forum; see I Brownlie,
Principles of Public International Law,
1998, Oxford: OUP, who also adds the general principles of
non-intervention and proportionality, p 313; MS McDougal and WM Reisman,
International Law in
Contemporary Perspective,
1981, Mineola, New York: Foundation Press, p 1274, claim that a State may
exercise its prescriptive jurisdiction only when it is substantially affected by an act.
7
Compania Naviera Vascongando v SS Cristina
[1938] AC 485, p 496,
per
Lord Macmillan. See M Hirst,
‘Jurisdiction over Cross-Frontier Offences’, 97
LQR
(1981), 80; in
Bankovic and Others v Belgium and Sixteen
Others,
Admissibility Decision (13 December 2001),ApplicationNo52207/99,EuropeanCourtofHuman
Rights (ECHR), the Court was seized with a complaint brought by six Yugoslav nationals against North
Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) Member States with regard to the bombing campaign against
Yugoslavia and the killing of the applicants’ family members. The Court found the application
inadmissible, holding that the crucial events occurred outside the Convention’s juridical space, stating
also that under international law, State jurisdiction is primarily territorial, all others being exceptional.
Chapter 7: State Jurisdiction and Immunities
145
jurisdictions. State practice has illustrated that in such situations, municipal
authorities will resort either to extra-territorial principles of jurisdiction, or consider
an element of the
actus reus
(firing of the shot) or the ensuing result (death) as having
occurred on their territory, thus finding application for the territoriality principle.
This latter expansion of the territoriality principle is termed ‘qualified’.
With regard to the qualified territorial principle, various tests are operated by
different States as to whether this requires the actual commission of the offence or
its effects to have occurred in the claimant State. Two principles have generally been
applied to address this situation, namely, the subjective and objective principles of
territoriality.
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