Exercise Overview
Conceptual skills refer to the manager’s ability to think
in the abstract. This exercise will aid you in under-
standing the effects that nonrational biases and risk
propensity can have on decision making.
Exercise Background
Two psychologists, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman,
conducted much of the research that led to our
knowledge of decision-making biases. Tversky and
Kahneman found that they could understand individuals’
real-life choices by presenting experimental subjects
with simulated decisions in a laboratory setting. They
developed a theory called prospect theory, which uses
behavioral psychology to explain why individuals are
nonrational when making economic decisions. Their
work has contributed a great deal to the developing
discipline of behavioral economics. In fact, Kahneman
won the 2002 Nobel Prize in Economics for development
of these concepts. (Tversky could not share in the award
because the Nobel Prize cannot be given posthumously.)
Tversky and Kahneman’s most important finding was
that an individual’s perception of gain or loss in a situa-
tion is more important than an objective measure of gain
or loss. Thus, individuals are nonrational—that is, they
do not make decisions based purely on rational criteria.
Related to this conclusion, Tversky and Kahneman
found that humans think differently about gains and
losses. This is called framing. Another finding is that peo-
ple allow their perceptions to be skewed positively or neg-
atively, depending on information they receive. Later,
when new information becomes available, people have a
hard time letting go of their initial perceptions, even if the
new information contradicts their original impressions.
This effect is referred to as anchoring and adjustment.
To answer the following questions, you must be able to
calculate an expected value. To calculate an expected value,
multiply each possible outcome value by the probability of
its occurrence, and then sum all the results. Here is a sim-
ple example: You have a 50 percent chance of earning 80
points on an exam and a 50 percent chance of earning 70
points. The expected value can be calculated as (.5 + 80) +
(.5 × 70), or a .5 chance of 80 points (equal to 40 points)
plus a .5 chance of 70 points (equal to 35 points). There-
fore, the expected value of your exam is 75 points.
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