Religious Revival and Emerging Political Paradigms in Tajikistan’s
Sector of the Ferghana Valley
Today, a process of re-Islamization is taking place in all the post-Soviet republics
of Central Asia, and particularly in northern Tajikistan, most of which belongs
geographically to the Ferghana Valley. Governments of the region have preferred
to speak of this in more politically correct terms as a revival of Islamic values and
the Islamic heritage. The religious situation and direction of evolution in the region
as a whole, and consequently in the valley as well, has changed, as have the posi-
tions of the various theological and legal schools. For a millennium the dominant
theological and legal school has been that of the Hanafis, named for al-Nu’man
Sabit al-Imam al-A’zama Abu Hanifa (699–767). Over the centuries, Hanafi Islam
in Central Asia absorbed many local traditions, customs, and ceremonies, which
created the conditions necessary for the formation of an independent center of
Muslim culture in the region.
175
352 BABADJANOV, MALIKOV, NAZAROV
After the liberalization of religious life that started in the mid-1990s, religion
began to emerge from under the onslaught of Soviet official atheism. It turned
out that Islam not only had not lost its place in the worldview of the Tajik people,
but was reviving with a new vigor that enabled it to encompass all areas of life,
including the political. Today, extremist religious organizations in the various
areas of Sughd province (i.e., Ferghana Valley)
176
are working under the guise of
various parties,
177
movements,
178
and groups.
179
Their programs and stated goals
confirm that they are indeed extremists, and that they were introduced from abroad
in order to bring about a reformation in the religious sphere and transformation in
the political order.
Divided among three countries, it is no surprise that the Ferghana Valley recently
should have become the object of influence and pressures from beyond its borders.
These arise from the intense competition for influence in the region, and result in
efforts by outside groups to impose by various means their own religious, political,
and ideological agendas. Inevitably, this has led to mounting tensions.
Local conditions also contribute significantly to the increase in tensions. Specifi-
cally, prevalent social and economic hardships, ethnic diversity, and unresolved
territorial disputes all give rise to destructive passions. The fact that there exists a
high level of religious consciousness among the general population also becomes
to some degree a factor of alienation and even conflict; individuals and communi-
ties seeking solutions to their problems are readily subjected to the ideological
influence of radical and extremist religious and political groups.
The goal of such extremist groups is to replace the public’s traditional notions
of Islam with radical approaches that call for the overthrow of secular governments
and the establishment of a modern version of a theocratic state. Curiously, they are
agents of the process of globalization in religion, shaking up seemingly immutable
theological and legal schools within Islam and causing turmoil in the collective
consciousness of Muslims of the region.
In Soviet times, the role of religion for the bulk of Muslims in the province of
Sughd was as a regulator of relations within families, kinship groups, and among
neighbors. Knowledge of the finer principles of the faith remained weak, as one
would expect in an environment filled with anti-religious propaganda pouring
forth from an atheistic state. When in the 1920s the Soviet government abolished
the Arabic-Persian script in favor first of Latin and then the Cyrillic alphabet, it
distanced Muslims from the written sources of religious knowledge. The destruc-
tion of religious literature, the closing of religious schools, the hounding of Islam
by the media, and the struggle against holdovers of religion led to the complete
transformation of Islam internally and externally. Nevertheless, to repeat, religious
norms continued to influence families, sometimes mahallas, and relationships
between people, as well as their ethics and collective memory.
Efforts to strengthen religious consciousness in Tajikistan began in the late
1970s when study groups in the private sector, such as hujras,
180
began responding
to a groundswell of interest in religious literature. Such groups focused on inten-
ISLAM IN THE FERGHANA VALLEY 353
sive readings on the Muslim credo ( aqida), religious law ( fiqh), politics, history,
and religion. Students in these groups learned about the recent developments in
the Middle East and the views and activities of Islamic scholars and theologians
intended to resolve these and other issues.
This renewal of religious consciousness among Tajiks is associated with the
name of Muhammadjon Hindustani,
181
as well as with his pupil Sayid Abdullo
Nuri (1947–2006), who founded the Islamic reform movement in the country. It
was under Nuri’s leadership that on April 20, 1973 a reformist Muslim society
was founded in Kurgan-Tyube under the name Islamic Renaissance of the Youth
of Tajikistan (Nahzati Islom chavononi Tojikiston).
182
This group immediately
began introducing into the curriculum of educational circles the study of Muslim
origins. It tried to introduce reforms and develop training programs based, so they
claimed, on Hanafi principles.
183
In the second half of the 1980s they launched the
clandestine religious periodical Truth of Islam (Haqiqati Islom).
184
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Islamic Renaissance became
an influential political movement, the IRPT. Many Islamic clergymen and Muslim
women joined the party, which at this time worked to promote Islam among Tajik
youth and did not seek to create or oppose enemies. Its literature paid particular
attention to bringing about a return to Islamic values through the education of young
people. One section of the organization carried out advocacy ( da’wah); a second
oversaw the party’s internal security; the third dealt with finance and property
management; and the fourth organized trainings and workshops.
Its creators claimed that the organization had been formed without any foreign
involvement.
185
However, the indirect influence on the IRPT of religious and politi-
cal ideas from elsewhere in the Islamic world is obvious. To take one example, the
Tajik religious elite and young people had carefully listened to radio broadcasts in
Persian from Iran and Afghanistan. Through these they became acquainted with
reformist currents in Islam that influenced their worldview and contributed to the
rather hazy political credo that they developed. Even during Soviet times the IRPT
was setting up many new groups to study the new religious literature, establishing
relations with Islamic intellectuals and representatives of the intelligentsia, and
organizing discussions, debates, and meetings.
186
The education program for youths
was based on such books as Tawhid (Monotheism), Al-Madd wa al-Jazr (Flux and
Reflux), and a summary of the Tarikh al-Bidayah wa’an Nihaya (History of the
Beginning and the End) by Ismail Ibn Kathir.
187
All such study of religious litera-
ture in Tajikistan was strictly illegal. Nonetheless, authoritative Islamic scholars
contributed enormously to the effort, even training people from other republics.
Tajikistan’s system of illegal Muslim education became widely known throughout
the USSR.
Of course, such educational groups as hujra operated in the Ferghana Valley.
Its founders there were Solim-Domullo from Khujand, Kamol-Gori from Ura-
Tyube, and others. Although not all of them were linked to the new clandestine
organization, they nevertheless contributed to the support of Islamic education
354 BABADJANOV, MALIKOV, NAZAROV
and the preservation of religious identity against a background of total ideological
pressure from the atheist authorities. Today the old clandestine group has greatly
changed since Soviet and immediate post-Soviet times. The IRPT developed its
political strategy in conformity with the Basic Law, or Constitution, and other rel-
evant legislation. Its program seeks the creation of a democratic and progressive
civil society that protects Tajikistan’s sovereignty and culture. The IRPT calls on
all political and social groups to maintain an atmosphere of peace, brotherhood,
and love. Moreover, it seeks economic development in accordance with relevant
domestic and international law, while supporting a multi-party democracy, media
freedom, and protection of the rights of journalists.
188
The IRPT is associated with the traditional Islam to which a significant number
of its members adhere. The IRPT acknowledges the extremism of such “imported”
Islamic parties as HT, and operates on the principle of reform, not revolution. To
this end, the IRPT publishes the newspaper Najot, magazines, books and brochures,
and holds meetings around the country. Yet neither the majority of the Tajik popu-
lation nor all Muslim leaders support the formation of religious parties, believ-
ing that this politicizes religion and therefore harms it, and will lead to internal
conflicts. This negative attitude only increased during the Tajik civil war of the
1990s, when the population divided into two camps comprised of believers and
non-believers. Today, the IRPT claims over 23,000 members, with representatives
working actively in almost every town and district and with extensive links with
parties and parliaments abroad. It enjoys considerable support in the Sughd region
of the Ferghana Valley.
189
In the parliamentary elections of February 27, 2005 the IRPT won two seats
in the lower house of the parliament. Some experts
190
argue that these modest
results show that the party remains inexperienced and has yet to establish itself.
Uninformed promises by the IRPT have certainly damaged it in the eyes of many
in the electorate, who believe it incapable of meeting their expectations. Divisions
within the IRPT are also damaging, especially the rift between modernists led by
deputy chairman Mukhiddin Kabiri and conservatives consolidating around Mo-
hammad Nuri, the son of the late president of the party, Sayyid Abdullo Nuri.
191
Kabiri’s followers support a westernized orientation, like the Iranian reformer,
Khatami, seeking to impart a veneer of liberalism to Islam. European-educated
and with extensive connections in the West, Kabiri strikes some as a new type
spiritual leader, but the conservative wing of the party that opposes him is clearly
far stronger. No wonder, then, that he and his followers lost out to conservatives
in the 2008 parliamentary elections.
The conservatives predominate in the rural provinces and account for fully 70 per-
cent of the IRPT’s support. They are especially strong in Rasht and Garm, but also in
Tajikistan’s part of the Ferghana Valley.
192
In addition to responding to these rural voters
on most domestic issues, Nuri and the IRPT’s conservative leaders follow Iran’s lead
on foreign policy. However, they are extremely careful not to give rise to charges that
they favor a Shiia orientation, which would, of course, be very damaging.
ISLAM IN THE FERGHANA VALLEY 355
Long and difficult negotiations at the end of Tajikistan’s five-year civil war
seemed to put an end to the confrontation between state and religion. However, it
soon became apparent that various currents of radical Islam, mainly imported from
abroad, posed new dangers, not least to the IRPT. New Islamic forces in active
opposition to the government are particularly active in the Ferghana Valley. They
have few links, if any, to the IRPT.
One of these newly imported movements is Salafism.
193
This extremely conser-
vative and puritanical ideology was brought back to Tajikistan by students return-
ing from religious centers in the Middle East, mainly the Gulf states. The Tajik
government is wary of Salafism because it could lead to a schism among Muslims
in Tajikistan, and especially in the Sughd region of the Ferghana Valley. Here the
Salafis have issued a call for the re-creation of the pure Muslim faith that purport-
edly existed in the early years after the Prophet and his immediate successors, bit-
terly opposing all changes not explicitly approved by the Qur’an and the traditions
(Sunnah and hadith).
194
They are especially hostile to Sufism, which has always
been popular in the Ferghana Valley and Central Asia generally, and which they
accuse of distorting Islam with unacceptable national and regional rites and customs.
They also oppose Ismailis, whom they do not consider Muslims at all. The Salafis
take as their spiritual guides such theologians as Ibn Hanbali,
195
al-Shafi’i,
196
Ibn
Taymiyyah,
197
and Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab. Adherents of the movement
argue that they favor only peaceful tactics, but the armed Salafi attacks in Algeria
in 2007 remind us that tactics can quickly change, and for the worse.
The first acknowledgement of Salafis in Tajikistan came from the former min-
ister of internal affairs, Husniddin Sharipov, in January 2006, when he told the
press that “Proponents of this movement have already been recorded in the north
of the country Ferghana,”
198
and then linked them with Osama bin Laden’s ter-
rorist network.
199
Leaders of the Salafis in Tajikistan are young men; the average
age of those in Sughd province (Ferghana) is thirty years. Most received generous
scholarships to study at the Faisal International University in Islamabad or at uni-
versities in Yemen and Saudi Arabia.
200
Through such studies they developed their
hatred of Sufis, Ismailis, and also the cult of saints or holy men ( awliya), which
has been a main feature of Central Asian Islam for a millennium, especially in the
Ferghana Valley.
201
There is reason to think that after their return from studying in the Gulf, the
young Salafi leaders of Sughd and elsewhere continue to receive financial assistance
from abroad. Having enjoyed stipends of $300–$400 a month during their student
days,
202
it is unlikely that they would settle for less back home, even though many
are semi-literate.
In the summer of 2008 the prosecutor’s office in Sughd announced that law-
enforcement authorities would tighten their control over the Salafis of the province.
Prosecutor Khayrullo Saidov admitted to the news service “Kazakhstan Today”
that for the time being “no illegal actions by supporters of the movement have been
recorded.” However, he defended his preventive action on the grounds that the
356 BABADJANOV, MALIKOV, NAZAROV
Salafis had first presented their activities as innocuous, but that they later “acquired
threatening forms.”
203
The prosecutor also reminded his interviewer of the terrorist
attacks that Salafis had mounted in Algiers the year before.
Whether or not potential danger provides sufficient legal basis for such strict
controls over citizens, the general prosecutor demanded still-sterner measures. Ac-
cordingly, the Supreme Court of Tajikistan on January 9, 2009, outlawed the Salafi
movement. Tajik authorities charged with enforcing the ban argue that they are
“defending the constitutional order and preventing inter-religious strife.” Among
other stipulations, the ban covers the dissemination of any religious literature that
presents the movement’s ideas. Clearly, the government in Dushanbe believes the
Salafis of distant Ferghana constitute a genuine danger. It may not be irrelevant
that about the same time as the court decision in early 2008, Tajikistan’s “special
services” concluded that there were also several thousand Salafis in the capital
itself.
204
Another Islamist political party imported into Tajikistan is the Hizb ut-Tahrir
al-Islami, better known in the local form of the name, Hizb ut-Tahrir. The first units
of the party appeared in Andijan, Tashkent, and Ferghana City in the 1990s,
205
and
in a short time it significantly expanded its influence within Uzbekistan and then
across the region. HT first appeared in Tajikistan in 1998. Beginning in areas of the
Ferghana Valley adjoining Tajikistan’s border with Uzbekistan, it then spread to
the central and southern parts of the country, the city of Dushanbe and its suburbs,
and even to the Pamirs. When Uzbek authorities took drastic measures against the
party, many of its leaders crossed into adjoining countries, seeking to take advantage
of more liberal laws on religion there. HT launched its Tajik efforts in the Sughd
region of the Ferghana Valley. Thus, Abdudzhalil Iusupov and Abduholik Mulloev,
both residents of the Gafur district in Sughd province, had been recruited by their
fellow students and had trained in HT’s Andijan branch. Utilizing young men
aged eighteen-to-twenty who were traders at local markets, Iusupov and Mulloev
established HT branches in several towns in Sughd province.
206
Prosecutors in Sughd presented HT literature that openly calls for the incite-
ment of ethnic and religious strife and the overthrow of the constitutional order.
The sources of financing HT’s activities in Sughd turn out to be very similar to
the usual means of financing political parties: membership dues, the sale of party
literature, the creation of legal party-owned commercial and financial enterprises,
and money channeled to the leadership from abroad.
207
Needless to say, HT’s ad-
herents are irreconcilable enemies of the IRPT and of its decision to work within
the framework of the Constitution.
In the Sughd region of the Ferghana Valley, HT has grown at a rampant pace.
It has succeeded by focusing primarily on young people, who are alienated from
the political system and are inspired by the party’s directives to liberate Islamic
territories from the rule of “infidels” and create a worldwide caliphate.
208
The par-
ent organization in London, unable to find sufficient support among the Muslims
in the Middle East and Arab countries, sees Central Asia and especially Sughd as
ISLAM IN THE FERGHANA VALLEY 357
fertile ground. Its translations of Qur’anic studies into Tajik and Uzbek are of high
quality, and its leaflets appeal effectively to the many problem areas in the religious,
social, and political life of the region.
In 2001 the prosecutor’ office of Tajikistan reviewed the activities of HT and
judged them both extremist and destructive, and on this basis banned the party
throughout the country. After the ban HT activities either went even deeper under-
ground or fled to neighboring Kyrgyzstan.
209
Since the party conducts its activities
in secret and its structure is deliberately atomized, law-enforcement agencies have
difficulty identifying its members and leaders. However, reasonably reliable media
reports affirm that HT still has several thousand members in the Sughd region, with
only a few dozen of them having been arrested and sentenced to terms of varying
lengths. Among the convicted are very few significant leaders of the party.
It should be noted that in the Sughd region the bulk of HT members are Uz-
beks, who comprise only 40 percent of the total population of the province. The
involvement of Uzbek-speaking people into this type of organization probably
traces to the fact that Uzbeks and other Turkic-speaking Muslim ethnic groups,
including Kyrgyz, Lokayts, Marka, Kungurat, and Barlas, constitute only a very
insignificant percent of the members of the IRPT, not only in Sughd but across
Tajikistan. Even if the IRPT did not largely ignore Turkic speakers, it is doubtful
that it could draw members away from HT, since their goals are antithetical and
the goals for joining one rather than the other mutually exclusive. Moreover, Uz-
beks of Tajikistan who participate in HT can feel themselves part of a network of
Uzbeks who exchange information and disseminate leaflets and brochures across
the entire Ferghana Valley.
A further reason for the heavy focus of HT activities in Sughd is that some
activists from the Uzbekistan party who were being hounded by the authori-
ties in Uzbekistan found it convenient to hide in the adjacent Sughd province of
Tajikistan. Thus, in 2003 law-enforcement agencies of the area detained a large
group of HT members from Uzbekistan who had merely resumed their activities
in the city of Khujand. The leader of this group was Saidkamoliddin Nosirov, a
native of the Kasansai district of Namangan province in Uzbekistan.
210
Not only
had Nosirov’s group carried out the translation, publication, and dissemination of
extremist literature and leaflets, but also recruited young people from Sughd into
its ranks. The investigation disclosed that the group had a channel through the
Aibek border checkpoint (on the border of Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan), through
which money in U.S. dollars flowed from Uzbek Ferghana to support the printing
house in Khujand and equip it with computers and other office technologies, and
to maintain a house for the staff.
Not all the funds for the Khujand operation came from Uzbekistan, however. A
member of the Khujand group, Z. Abduvahhobov, on December 20, 2002, received
$5,995 in cash to support the work of the group. These funds originated with a U.S.
national, Imamuddin Muhti, who apparently transferred them from the bank of J.P.
Morgan in New York to the Alpha Bank in Moscow and thence to the Eskhata Bank
358 BABADJANOV, MALIKOV, NAZAROV
in Khujand, which then paid Abduvahhobov. A planned second transfer of money
did not take place because by then the mufti had been arrested. These cases of remit-
tances show that religious extremist movements are financed in part from abroad.
211
Other similar cases confirm the extent and method of HT’s foreign support.
Most extremist organizations, including HT, also receive significant funds from
domestic sources, especially contributions from members. Thus, each HT member
is required to make a fixed donation from his salary or other resources, the amount
for ordinary members typically ranging from five to twenty percent of income.
212
The reality of domestic financing compels local political and religious leaders
to underscore again and again what they argue are Hizb ut-Tahrir’s foreign funding
sources. The well-known theologian and political figure Hodja Akbar Turajonzoda
calls this party a special organization sponsored from the West in order to “un-
dermine the states of Central Asia.” Turajonzoda goes on to argue that “a detailed
analysis of the program and ideology of HT and of specific examples of its activities
indicates clearly that it was created [not by Muslims but] by anti-Islamic forces.” If
this were not the case, he asks, how could HT survive so comfortably in the West,
maintaining offices in London and other cities, where HT leaders developed the
concept of an Islamic caliphate?
213
Turajonzoda is an authoritative representative of traditional Islam in Tajikistan.
He traces the growth of Islamic extremism to ignorance of the true principles of
the faith. He believes that “imported” religious parties, movements, and groups
are destabilizing the country and threaten its existence as a nation and as a state.
He misses no opportunity to fault such groups on theological grounds, arguing, for
example, that by denying any role in public life to the traditional advisory councils
or shura , HT contradicts the Qur’an itself.
214
This kind of approach to the problem of radical Islamic organizations on the
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