leads us to a different conclusion. In English
bitter and
delicious are adjectives but in Luganda
kukaawa and
kuwoooma,
the words which express corresponding meanings, are verbs. The word-class that a word belongs
to is not necessarily determined by its meaning. It is fixed by the conventions of a particular language. So, it
must be listed in the lexicon.
The lexicon must also list any idiosyncratic grammatical properties of a word. In section (
6.3
) we
emphasised regularities in the grammatical behaviour of words which can be captured by general rules. This
should not overshadow the fact that there are some grammatical aspects of word behaviour which are
peculiar to a word and defy any systematic, general rules. For instance, there is no way of predicting from
their meanings why some verbs allows a complement clause that begins with either the infinitive marker
to
or
the conjunction that while other verbs only allow
to. Contrast [11.2] with [11.3]:
[11.2]
a.
She expected that
John would play another match,
b.
She expected John to play another match.
[11.3]
a.
She persuaded John to play another match.
b.
*She persuaded that John would play another match.
So, our lexical entry for a verb will have to specify the kind of complements that a verb is allowed (Chomsky
1965, 1986).
Some of the grammatical information that needs to be specified has to do with morphological features.
For instance, there are cases where we need to know if a word is native or foreign before we can attach an
affix to it. Usually foreign affixes have to be used with foreign loans and native affixes with native stems,
which is why the plural of Greek loan
phenomenon is
phenomena not
*phenomenons. In derivational
morphology too, foreign affixes tend to occur with foreign roots and native affixes with native roots. Thus,
the native suffix
-ness tends to co-occur with native roots and bases and the Romance suffix
-ity, which is
very closely related in meaning, occurs with Romance roots and bases. That is why the abstract noun
formed from the
light which comes from Old English is
lightness not
*lightity. By contrast, the French
borrowing
futile takes
-ity to give
futility (*futileness). This is the essential insight which the theory of
lexical phonology captures (cf. section (
6.5.2
)).
Also, if a word is an exception to a general rule which would otherwise affect it, we need to flag it with
an exception feature in the lexicon. For instance, nouns like
furniture and
equipment have to be expressly
marked as not being eligible for the plural inflection.
Meaning
Obviously, the lexicon would be of little use if it contained phonological and grammatical information but
said nothing about meaning. The whole point of having words is to be able to mean. We look up in
lexicographers’ dictionaries the meanings of words we do not know, and many of us have an unshakeable
trust in dictionary definitions. Yet, interestingly, even the best standard dictionaries provide only a very bare
and selective statement of meaning. They are a very pale reflection of the meanings contained in the mental
lexicon. (Cf. Fodor (1981), Hudson (1984) and Aitchison (1987) for more detailed discussion.)
THE MENTAL LEXICON 159
I will illustrate what I mean with the word
dog.
Webster’s dictionary says that a
dog is ‘any of a large
group of domesticated animals belonging to the same family as the fox, wolf, jackal, etc.
’
, but your mental
representation of ‘dog’ is much more elaborate. It includes all sorts of information—that the prototypical
dog is like a Labrador rather than a Great Dane or Chihuahua; that it barks; that it is carnivorous; that it can
be a good companion or a fierce guard; that it leaves a terrible mess on the pavement etc.
The specification of the meaning of a word in a lexicographer’s dictionary tends to convey the most
salient aspects of its cognitive meaning and to omit important aspects like other words to
which it is related,
its semantic associations and connotations. Your dictionary might say, for example, that the
Commonwealth
is the free association of nations formed by Britain and her former dominions and colonies. Given this
definition, you might expect the expression ‘New Commonwealth’ to refer to states that have recently
joined the Commonwealth. But this kind of standard definition is of little value in understanding the
euphemism
New Commonwealth as it is used in the press. The unconventional definition from Holder (1987:
221) is more like the definition people have in their mental lexicons:
[11.4]
‘New Commonwealth’
non-white
After WW II ‘Empire’ had too many over-tones of conquest and superiority and the Br. adopted ‘Commonwealth’ as
a collective noun of those former colonies which wished to stay in the club. Whatever the relative length of your
association
with Britain, you remain in the ‘New Commonwealth’ if your citizens are Black.
So that is why a country like India or Jamaica, whose association with Britain goes back more than 300
years, is part of the ‘New Commonwealth’. Interestingly, there is no ‘Old Commonwealth’.
Connotations and associations are important even when talking about issues that are less emotionally
charged. Words may be ‘synonymous’ at the cognitive level but differ greatly in the associations they bring
with them.
Compare these words, which might be listed together in a dictionary of synonyms:
[11.5]
stoned plastered drunk inebriated intoxicated
In order to choose the situations in which it would be appropriate to use each one of these words, we need
to consider the level of formality, the relationship between the interlocutors and the nature of the
communication situation.
Drunk is neutral.
Intoxicated and
inebriated are more formal, so are used in more
formal situations.
Stoned and
plastered are informal. Part of our lexical knowledge involves knowing what
is appropriate to a given situation.
In sum, both the mental lexicon and the lexicographer’s dictionary must contain orthographic,
phonological, grammatical and semantic information. The various kinds of information outlined here must
be instantaneously retrievable by both speakers and hearers from their mental lexicon.
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