Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: Mahmoud M. Ayoub, The Quran and 

Its Interpreters. 2 vols. (Albany: State University of New 

York Press, 1984, 1992); Meir M. Bar-Asher, Scripture 

and Exegesis in Early Imami Shiism (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 

1999); John Burton, “Quranic Exegesis.” In Religion, 

Learning and Science in the Abbasid Period, edited by 

M. J. L. Young, J. D. Latham, and R. B. Serjeant, 40–55 

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Farid 

Esack,  The Quran: A User’s Guide (Oxford: Oneworld, 

2005), 121–146; Helmut Gätje, The Quran and Its Exe-

gesis: Selected Texts with Classical and Modern Muslim 

Interpretations. Translated by Alford T. Welch (Berkeley: 

University of California Press, 1976); Jane Dammen 

McAuliffe, “The Tasks and Traditions of Interpretation.” 

In  The Cambridge Companion to the Quran, 181–210 

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Abu 

Ammar Yasir Qadhi, An Introduction to the Sciences of the 

Quran (Birmingham, U.K.: Al-Hidaayah Publishing and 

Distribution, 1999); Andrew Rippin, ed., Approaches to 

the History of the Interpretation of the Quran (Oxford: 

Clarendon Press, 1988); Kristin Z. Sands, Sufi Com-

mentaries on the Quran in Classical Islam (London: Rout-

ledge, 2006); Stefan Wild, “Political Interpretation of 

the Quran.” In The Cambridge Companion to the Quran,

edited by Jane Danimen McAuliffe (Cambridge: Cam-

bridge University Press, 2006), 273–290.

tahara

  See 

ablution

; 

circumcision

; 

dietary

 

laws

.

tajdid

  See 

renewal

 

and

 

reform

 

movements

.

Tajikistan

  See c

entral

 a

sia

 

and

 

the

 c

aucasus

.