Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: Jonathan E. Brockopp, “The ‘Good 

Death’ in Islamic Theology and Law,” in idem, ed., 

Islamic Ethics of Life: Abortion, War, and Euthanasia

(Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2003), 

177–193; David Cook, Martyrdom in Islam (Cambridge: 

Cambridge University Press, 2007); David Cook and 

Olivia Allison, Understanding and Addressing Suicide 

Attacks: The Faith and Politics of Martyrdom Opera-

tions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007); 

Bernard K. Freamon, “Martyrdom, Suicide, and the 

Islamic Law of War: A Short Legal History,” in Fordham 

International Law Journal 27 (2003), 299–369; Haim 

Malka, “Must Innocents Die? The Islamic Debate over 

Suicide Attacks,” in Middle East Quarterly 10, no. 2 

(Spring 2003), on http://www.meforum.org/ article/530; 

Robert A. Pape, Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of 

Suicide Terrorism (New York: Random House, 2005); 

Franz Rosenthal, “On Suicide in Islam,” in Journal of 

the American Oriental Society, 66 (July–Sept. 1946): 

239–259, reprinted in idem, Muslim Intellectual and 

Social History: A Collection of Essays (Aldershot, Hamp-

shire, U.K.: Varorium, 1990).

sultan

In Arabic the term sultan generally means “power” 

or “

aUthority

,” but starting in the 10th century 

c

.

e

. increasingly it also came to be an official 

title designating the person who holds power and 

authority. Although the title could refer to a pro-

vincial governor or prince, it could also serve as 

the title of the ruler of an entire region or empire.

This was the case when the Shii Buyids seized 

control of b

aghdad

 in 945 

c

.

e

. The Buyids allowed 

the a

bbasid

 c

aliphate

 to continue as the symbolic 

and religious head of the Muslim community 

while their own leader took over all real military 

and political authority under the title of sultan. 

Although this division of authority did not form a 

part of the early Islamic ideals, both the caliph and 

political theorists accommodated themselves to 

the realities of the situation. They concluded that 

because the Buyids upheld Islamic law (

sharia

), 

the chaos and violence that would likely ensue in 

an attempt to overthrow them was not worth the 

risk. At the same time, however, they tried to put 

limits on the devolution of power by insisting that 

only the caliph could confer the title of sultan. The 

Buyids and those who came after them accepted 

this and eagerly sought this statement of investiture 

from the caliph for the legitimacy that it bestowed. 

In return the sultan promised to defend the lands of 

Islam from external threats, while ensuring justice 

internally. In this way Muslim theorists adopted 

a more Persian-inspired model of government in 

which religion and government are seen as brothers 

that mutually support each other.

When the Seljuk Turks defeated the Buyids in 

1055 the caliph did not regain any of his author-

ity under the new regime, but the defeat did bring