Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: Joel Beinin and Zachary Lockman, 

Workers on the Nile: Nationalism, Communism, Islam 

and the Egyptian Working Class, 1882–1954 (Princeton, 

N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987); Arthur Gold-

schmidt, Jr., Modern Egypt: The Formation of a Nation-

State (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1991); Afaf Lutfi 

al-Sayyid Marsot, Egypt’s Liberal Experiment: 1922–1936

(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977); Robert 

L. Tignor, Modernization and British Colonial Rule in 

Egypt, 1882–1914 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univer-

sity Press, 1966); P. J. Vatikiotis, The History of Modern 

Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak, 4th ed. (Balti-

more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991).