versity Press, 1955), 242–270; W. Montgomery Watt,
Muhammad at Medina (1956. New edition, Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1981).
323
AF
J:
ibada
See f
ive
p
illars
.
Ibadiyya
The Ibadiyya sect of Islam is one of several Mus-
lim Kharijite movements that declared war against
the wider Muslim community in the seventh and
eighth centuries because of what they considered
to be gross moral shortcomings of its leadership.
It is named after one of the leaders in these move-
ments, Abd Allah ibn Ibad (d. late seventh century
or early eighth century) of Basra, known as “
imam
of the Muslims” and “imam of the people” in Ibadi
sources. The Ibadis also hold the Omani scholar
Jabir ibn Zayd al-Azdi (d. ca. 722) in high esteem.
Ibadis have adopted a moderate stance toward
nonmembers and dissociated themselves from
extremist Kharijis, who called unrepentant Mus-
lims who had committed a grave sin (mushrikun).
On the other hand, they also claim to be distinct
from Sunni and Shii Muslims. The Ibadi sect
today has its largest following in the Persian Gulf
country of Oman (about 75 percent of the popu-
lation), but branches also exist in e
ast
a
Frica
,
l
ibya
, t
Unisia
, and a
lgeria
. During the Middle
Ages, it also had followers who lived along old
routes of conquest and trade in i
raq
, e
gypt
, the
s
Udan
, the Hijaz, y
emen
and Hadramawt, i
ran
,
and perhaps i
ndia
and c
hina
.
Ibadi doctrine about God is similar to that
of the Mutazila in several respects. They affirm
the createdness of the q
Uran
, and they interpret
anthropomorphic references to God in the Quran
symbolically rather than literally. On the other
hand, with respect to the question of free will
versus predeterminism, their belief is like that of
the Sunni a
shari
s
chool
, with its affirmation of
God’s power to determine events while leaving
human beings with the capacity to acquire the
consequences of their actions, whether good or
evil. Ibadis differentiate between inward belief in
God’s oneness, outward declaration of this belief,
and implementing this belief in practice. This is
an outcome of their historical experience as an
Islamic sect that witnessed moments when con-
cealment of belief (kitman) was a key to survival
in the face of persecution by enemies. In this
respect, they are like the Shia, who developed
the analogous doctrine of pious dissimulation
(taqiyya). Like the Shia, they have also witnessed
times when they were strong enough to defend
themselves. They have even developed a concept
of
martyrdom
, which Ibadis call
shira (pur-
chase)—the willingness to sacrifice one’s life on
I
behalf of the community in order to gain entrance
into
paradise
. A minimum force of 40 men is
required before shira is permitted, however.
Generally, in contrast to extremist Kharijites, the
Ibadis do not consider other Muslims to be dis-
believers who must be fought and killed. Rather,
their relations with outsiders range from peaceful
association to neutrality to hostile avoidance. In
their ritual life, Ibadis practice the same duties of
worship as do other Muslims, with some minor
differences.
Ibadis heed the
aUthority
of their own imam,
an office of leadership that began in 730. Unlike
the Shia, whose imams are descended from the
household of Muhammad, Ibadi imams attain
office through election by a body of
Ulama
and
tribal leaders. The Ibadi imam may also be
deposed for errant behavior. Moreover, in contrast
to the Shia, there can be more than one imam at a
time among the different Ibadi communities, and
there may also be times when there is no official
imam. In Ibadi history, the elective tradition of
leadership has competed with a dynastic one. In
recent times, their imams have been members of
the Al Bu Said dynasty in Oman, which has held
power since the 17th century. However, they now
prefer to call themselves
sUltan
s, which empha-
sizes their temporal power. Oman, therefore, is
called a sultanate.
See also
Free
Will
and
determinism
; g
UlF
s
tates
;
k
haWariJ
; m
Utazili
s
chool
; s
hiism
; s
Unnism
.
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