Encyclopedia of Islam

Constitutional Revolution

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ics at the same time the Anglo-Russian Conven-

tion of 1907 was dividing Iran into respective 

spheres of British and Russian influence. Not 

long after an unsuccessful coup attempt by the 

anticonstitutionalists, reflecting deep divisions 

among the elites and in the larger society as well, 

the Cossack Brigade helped shut down the majlis

in June 1908. Constitutionalists, nationalists, 

and revolutionary Social Democrats regained 

control in July 1909 and deposed the shah. 

Dissatisfaction on many fronts descended into 

rounds of assassination and terrorism, while 

public discontent with an increasingly conserva-

tive constitutional government grew from 1910 

to 1911.

With the consent of the British, the Russians 

offered an ultimatum to the government when the 

American financial adviser Morgan Shuster was 

brought in to help the country out of its financial 

morass. Fortified by antiimperialist demonstra-

tions, the majlis rejected the ultimatum. By the 

end of 1911, the Russians were bombing Tabriz 

and Gilan, massacring revolutionaries in Azerbai-

jan, and executing and deporting constitutional-

ists. A coup led by Nasir al-Mulk and the cabinet 

ended the second majlis and the revolution that 

brought it to power. However, future revolution-

ary forces would look back to Iran’s first Consti-

tutional Revolution to learn from its lessons and 

inspire their own efforts to oppose tyrannical 

regimes.

See also 

colonialism

; 

democracy

; 

politics

 

and

i

slam

.

Patrick S. O’Donnell