Speed
Ref.
Tachometer
Speed feedback
Induction
motor
Inverter
Rectifier
Control circuits
Figure 8.1
General arrangement of inverter-fed variable-frequency induction motor
speed-controlled drive
280
Electric Motors and Drives
comparable d.c. motor, and this saving compensated for the relatively
high cost of the inverter compared with the thyristor d.c. converter. But
whereas a d.c. drive was invariably supplied with a motor provided with
laminated
W
eld poles and through ventilation to allow it to operate
continuously at low speeds without overheating, the standard induction
motor has no such provision, having been designed primarily for
W
xed-
frequency full-speed operation. Thus, although the inverter is capable of
driving the induction motor with full torque at low speeds, continuous
operation is unlikely to be possible because the cooling fan will be
ine
V
ective and the motor will overheat.
Plate 8.1
Inverter-fed induction motor with inverter mounted directly onto motor.
(Alternatively the inverter can be wall-mounted, as in the upper illustration, which also
shows the user interface module.) (Photo courtesy of ABB)
Inverter-Fed Induction Motor Drives
281
Now that inverter-fed drives dominate the market, two changes have
become evident. Firstly, reputable suppliers now warn of the low-speed
limitation of the standard induction motor, and encourage users to opt
for a blower-cooled motor if necessary. And secondly, the fact that
inverter-fed motors are not required to start direct-on-line at supply
frequency means that the design need no longer be a compromise
between starting and running performance. Motors can therefore be
designed speci
W
cally for operation from an inverter, and have low-
resistance cages giving very high steady-state e
Y
ciency and good open-
loop speed holding. The majority of drives do still use standard motors,
but inverter-speci
W
c motors with integral blowers are gradually gaining
ground.
The steady-state performance of inverter-fed drives is broadly compar-
able with that of d.c. drives (except for the limitation highlighted above),
with drives of the same rating having similar overall e
Y
ciencies and overall
torque–speed capabilities. Speed holding is likely to be less good in the
induction motor drive, though if tacho feedback is used both systems will
be excellent. The induction motor is clearly more robust and better suited
to hazardous environments, and can run at higher speeds than the d.c.
motor, which is limited by the performance of its commutator.
Some of the early inverters did not employ pulse width modulation
(PWM), and produced jerky rotation at low speed. They were also notice-
ably more noisy than their d.c. counterparts, but the widespread adoption
of PWM has greatly improved these aspects. Most low and medium power
inverters use MOSFET or IGBT devices, and may modulate at ultrasonic
frequencies, which naturally result in relatively quiet operation.
The Achilles heel of the basic inverter-fed system has been the rela-
tively poor transient performance. For fan and pump applications and
high-inertia loads this is not a serious drawback, but where rapid re-
sponse to changes in speed or load is called for (e.g. in machine tools or
rolling mills), the d.c. drive with its fast-acting current-control loop
traditionally proved superior. However, it is now possible to achieve
equivalent levels of dynamic performance from induction motors, but
the complexity of the control naturally re
X
ects in a higher price. Most
manufacturers now o
V
er this so-called ‘vector’ or ‘
W
eld-oriented’ control
(see Section 8.4) as an optional extra for high-performance drives.
Inverter waveforms
When we looked at the converter-fed d.c. motor we saw that the behav-
iour was governed primarily by the mean d.c. voltage, and that for most
purposes we could safely ignore the ripple components. A similar ap-
282
Electric Motors and Drives
proximation is useful when looking at how the inverter-fed induction
motor performs. We make use of the fact that although the actual
voltage waveform supplied by the inverter will not be sinusoidal, the
motor behaviour depends principally on the fundamental (sinusoidal)
component of the applied voltage. This is a somewhat surprising but
extremely welcome simpli
W
cation, because it allows us to make use of
our knowledge of how the induction motor behaves with a sinusoidal
supply to anticipate how it will behave when fed from an inverter.
In essence, the reason why the harmonic components of the applied
voltage are much less signi
W
cant than the fundamental is that the im-
pedance of the motor at the harmonic frequencies is much higher than at
the fundamental frequency. This causes the current to be much more
sinusoidal than the voltage, as shown in Figure 8.2, and this in turn
means that we can expect a sinusoidal travelling
W
eld to be set up in
much the same way as discussed in Chapter 5.
It would be wrong to pretend that the harmonic components have no
e
V
ects, of course. They can create unpleasant acoustic noise, and always
give rise to additional iron and copper losses. As a result it is common
for a standard motor to have to be de-rated (by up to perhaps 5 or 10%)
for use on an inverter supply.
As with the d.c. drive the inverter-fed induction motor drive will draw
non-sinusoidal currents from the utility supply. If the supply impedance
is relatively high signi
W
cant distortion of the mains voltage waveform is
inevitable unless
W
lters are
W
tted on the a.c. input side, but with normal
Voltage
Current
Figure 8.2
Typical voltage and current waveforms for PWM inverter-fed induction
motor. (The fundamental-frequency component is shown by the dotted line.)
Inverter-Fed Induction Motor Drives
283
industrial supplies there is no problem for small inverters of a few kW
rating.
Some inverters now include ‘front-end conditioning’ i.e. an extra high-
frequency switching stage and
W
lter which ensure that the current drawn
from the mains is not only sinusoidal, but also at unity power factor.
This feature will become widespread in medium and high power drives
to meet the increasingly stringent conditions imposed by the supply
authorities.
Steady-state operation – Importance of achieving full flux
Three simple relationships need to be borne in mind to simplify under-
standing of how the inverter-fed induction motor behaves. Firstly, we
established in Chapter 5 that for a given induction motor, the torque
developed depends on the strength of the rotating
X
ux density wave, and
on the slip speed of the rotor, i.e. on the relative velocity of the rotor
with respect to the
X
ux wave. Secondly, the strength or amplitude of the
X
ux wave depends directly on the supply voltage to the stator windings,
and inversely on the supply frequency. And thirdly, the absolute speed
of the
X
ux wave depends directly on the supply frequency.
Recalling that the motor can only operate e
Y
ciently when the slip is
small, we see that the basic method of speed control rests on the control
of the speed of rotation of the
X
ux wave (i.e. the synchronous speed), by
control of the supply frequency. If the motor is a 4-pole one, for
example, the synchronous speed will be 1500 rev/min when supplied at
50 Hz, 1200 rev/min at 40 Hz, 750 rev/min at 25 Hz and so on. The no-
load speed will therefore be almost exactly proportional to the supply
frequency, because the torque at no load is small and the corresponding
slip is also very small.
Turning now to what happens on load, we know that when a load is
applied the rotor slows down, the slip increases, more current is induced in
the rotor, and more torque is produced. When the speed has reduced to the
point where the motor torque equals the load torque, the speed becomes
steady. We normally want the drop in speed with load to be as small as
possible, not only to minimise the drop in speed with load, but also to
maximise e
Y
ciency: in short, we want to minimise the slip for a given load.
We saw in Chapter 5 that the slip for a given torque depends on the
amplitude of the rotating
X
ux wave: the higher the
X
ux, the smaller the
slip needed for a given torque. It follows that having set the desired
speed of rotation of the
X
ux wave by controlling the output frequency of
the inverter we must also ensure that the magnitude of the
X
ux is
adjusted so that it is at its full (rated) value, regardless of the speed of
284
Electric Motors and Drives
rotation. This is achieved by making the output voltage from the in-
verter vary in the appropriate way in relation to the frequency.
We recall that the amplitude of the
X
ux wave is proportional to the
supply voltage and inversely proportional to the frequency, so if we
arrange that the voltage supplied by the inverter vary in direct propor-
tion to the frequency, the
X
ux wave will have a constant amplitude. This
philosophy is at the heart of most inverter-fed drive systems: there are
variations, as we will see, but in the majority of cases the internal control
of the inverter will be designed so that the output voltage to frequency
ratio (
V/f
) is automatically kept constant, at least up to the ‘base’
(50 Hz or 60 Hz) frequency.
Many inverters are designed for direct connection to the mains sup-
ply, without a transformer, and as a result the maximum inverter output
voltage is limited to a value similar to that of the mains. With a 415 V
supply, for example, the maximum inverter output voltage will be per-
haps 450 V. Since the inverter will normally be used to supply a stand-
ard induction motor designed for say 415 V, 50 Hz operation, it is
obvious that when the inverter is set to deliver 50 Hz, the voltage should
be 415 V, which is within the inverter’s voltage range. But when the
frequency was raised to say 100 Hz, the voltage should – ideally – be
increased to 830 V in order to obtain full
X
ux. The inverter cannot
supply voltages above 450 V, and it follows that in this case full
X
ux
can only be maintained up to speeds a little above base speed. (It should
be noted that even if the inverter could provide higher voltages, they
could not be applied to a standard motor because the winding insulation
will have been designed to withstand not more than the rated voltage.)
Established practice is for the inverter to be capable of maintaining
the
V/f
ratio constant up to the base speed (50 Hz or 60 Hz), but to
accept that at all higher frequencies the voltage will be constant at its
maximum value. This means that the
X
ux is maintained constant at
speeds up to base speed, but beyond that the
X
ux reduces inversely
with frequency. Needless to say the performance above base speed is
adversely a
V
ected, as we will see.
Users are sometimes alarmed to discover that both voltage and fre-
quency change when a new speed is demanded. Particular concern is
expressed when the voltage is seen to reduce when a lower speed is called
for. Surely, it is argued, it can’t be right to operate say a 400 V induction
motor at anything less than 400 V. The fallacy in this view should now
be apparent: the
W
gure of 400 V is simply the correct voltage for the
motor when run directly from the mains, at say 50 Hz. If this full voltage
was applied when the frequency was reduced to say 25 Hz, the implica-
tion would be that the
X
ux would have to rise to twice its rated value.
Inverter-Fed Induction Motor Drives
285
This would greatly overload the magnetic circuit of the machine, giving
rise to excessive saturation of the iron, an enormous magnetising current
and wholly unacceptable iron and copper losses. To prevent this from
happening, and keep the
X
ux at its rated value, it is essential to reduce
the voltage in proportion to frequency. In the case above, for example,
the correct voltage at 25 Hz would be 200 V.
TORQUE–SPEED CHARACTERISTICS – CONSTANT
V/F OPERATION
When the voltage at each frequency is adjusted so that the ratio
V/f
is
kept constant up to base speed, and full voltage is applied thereafter, a
family of torque–speed curves as shown in Figure 8.3 is obtained. These
curves are typical for a standard induction motor of several kW output.
As expected, the no-load speeds are directly proportional to the
frequency, and if the frequency is held constant, e.g. at 25 Hz in Figure
8.3, the speed drops only modestly from no-load (point a) to full-load
(point b). These are therefore good open-loop characteristics, because
the speed is held fairly well from no-load to full-load. If the application
calls for the speed to be held precisely, this can clearly be achieved (with
the aid of closed-loop speed control) by raising the frequency so that the
full-load operating point moves to point (c).
We also note that the pull-out torque and the torque sti
V
ness (i.e. the
slope of the torque–speed curve in the normal operating region) is more
or less the same at all points below base speed, except at low frequencies
where the e
V
ect of stator resistance in reducing the
X
ux becomes very
pronounced. (The importance of stator resistance at low frequencies is
explored quantitatively in Section 7.10.) It is clear from Figure 8.3 that
Speed
Torque
a
c
b
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