Ottoman Thought: A Study in the Modernization of Turkish Political Ideas (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1962), 155–68ff.
12. See James W. Redhouse, A Turkish and English Lexicon (Constantinople:
American Board Mission, 1921), 1972; Avigdor Levy, “Millet Politics: The Ap-
pointment of a Chief Rabbi in 1835,” in The Jews of the Ottoman Empire, ed. Avig-
dor Levy (Princeton: Darwin Press, 1994), 104, 430, 434.
13. Roderic H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1963), 140–42, 147–48ff.; Steven Rosenthal, “Minori-
ties and Municipal Reform in Istanbul, 1850–1870,” in Christians and Jews in the
Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society, 2 vols., ed. Benjamin Braude
and Bernard Lewis, (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1982), 1:369–85.
14. Robert Devereux, The First Ottoman Constitutional Period: A Study of the
Midhat Constitution and Parliament (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1963), 144; Hasan Kayali, “Jewish Representation in the Ottoman Parliaments,”
in The Jews of the Ottoman Empire, ed. Levy, 508–11.
15. Galante, Histoire des Juifs de Turquie, 9:95; Levy, Sephardim, 109–10.
16. Yahya Akyüz, Türk Eğitim Tarihi (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim
Bilimleri Fakültesi, 1982), 100–118; Selcuk A. Somel, The Modernization of Public
Education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839–1908: Islamization, Autocracy, and Discipline
(Leiden: Brill, 2001), 25–41, 86–92.
17. Levy, Sephardim, 109–11; Selim Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains: Ideol-
ogy and the Legitimization of Power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909 (New York:
I. B. Tauris, 1998), 93–94.
18. Galante, Histoire des Juifs de Turquie, 9:95, 109–10; Berkes, Secularism, 114–
15; Osman Ergin, Türkiye Maarif Tarihi, 5 vols. (Istanbul: Osmanbey Matbaası,
1939–43), 2:285–86; Hayyim J. Cohen, The Jews of the Middle East, 1860–1972 (Je-
rusalem: Israel Universities Press, 1973), 131.
19. Berkes, Secularism, 188–90; Levy, Sephardim, 110, 148n388.
20. Cohen, Jews of the Middle East, 131; Levy, Sephardim, 110–11.
21. Aron Rodrigue, “The Beginnings of Westernization and Community Re-
form among Istanbul’s Jewry, 1854–65,” in The Jews of the Ottoman Empire, ed.
Levy, 441; Levy, Sephardim, 113.
22. Rodrigue, “Beginnings of Westernization,” 442–51.
23. Narcisse Leven, Cinquante ans d’histoire: l’Alliance Israélite Universelle
(1860–1910), 2 vols. (Paris: Librairie Felix Alcan, 1911–20), 1:69.
24. Ibid., 2:53–60, 65–71, 159–71, 177–79; Aron Rodrigue, French Jews, Turkish
Jews: The Alliance Israélite Universelle and the Politics of Jewish Schooling in Turkey,
1860–1925 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 47–57.
25. Rodrigue, French Jews, 71–80; Levy, Sephardim, 113–14.
26. Keren, Jewish Community of Rusçuk, 209–11.
27. Ali Haydar Mithat, The Life of Midhat Pasha (London: Murray, 1903; re-
print, New York: Arno Press, 1973), 40–42.
28. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 145.
29. Keren, Jewish Community of Rusçuk, 213–32.
28 · Avigdor Levy
30. Abraham Ben-Ya῾akov, The Jews of Iraq from the End of the Gaonic Period to
Our Times (1038–1960) (Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi Institute, 1965), 145 (Hebrew); An-
dré Chouraqui, Cent ans d’histoire: l’Alliance Israé lite Universelle et la renaissance
juive contemporaine (1860–1960) (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1965),
166; Cohen, Jews of the Middle East, 139; Rodrigue, French Jews, 140–41.
31. Somel, Modernization of Public Education, 202–204.
32. Galante, Histoire des Juifs de Turquie, 1:260–61; Neville J. Mandel, The Arabs
and Zionism before World War I (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976),
2–18; Isaiah Friedman, “The System of Capitulations and Its Effects on Turco-
Jewish Relations in Palestine, 1856–1897,” in Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period:
Political, Social, and Economic Transformation, ed. David Kushner (Jerusalem: Yad
Izhak Ben-Zvi, 1986), 285–89.
33. Chouraqui, Cent ans, 161–66; Cohen, Jews of the Middle East, 117, 130,
139–40, 193n89. As far as enrollments in AIU schools, there were considerable
differences among the various Jewish communities. In Izmir, for example, only
14 percent of Jewish children attended AIU schools, compared to 50 percent in
Edirne. Rodrigue, French Jews, 92.
34. Bulletin de l’Alliance Israélite Universelle, no. 18 (1893): 38–39.
35. Esther Benbassa, “Associational Strategies in Ottoman Jewish Society in
the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” in The Jews of the Ottoman Empire,
ed. Levy, 457–84; Feroz Ahmad, “The Special Relationship: The Committee of
Union and Progress and the Ottoman Jewish Political Elite, 1908–1918,” in Jews,
Turks, Ottomans, ed. Levy, 216–18.
36. Feroz Ahmad, “Unionist Relations with the Greek, Armenian, and Jewish
Communities of the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1914,” in Christians and Jews in the
Ottoman Empire, ed. Braude and Lewis, 1:425–28.
37. Ahmad, “The Special Relationship,” 218–20; see also Rozen, “The Hamid-
ian Era,” 130–32.
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