parts of the region drew to a close. Arab nationalist leaders frequently ad-
vocated and implemented the notion of national homogeneity whereby
non-Muslim minorities were relegated to the status of “inauthentic”
members of the nation-states, not full-fledged nationals. For their part,
the Jews found it difficult to adjust to the postcolonial setting. Many
among the educated were weary of efforts in the nation-state to promote
cultural, linguistic, and political Arabization at the expense of European
culture, which they felt would inhibit social progress. They also feared
economic marginalization. All these factors hastened the process of Ali-
yah (migration to Israel) or relocation to Europe and the Americas.
The end of the twentieth century and the first decade of the twenty-
first held some hope for a Judeo-Muslim entente in Israel, Palestine, and
Introduction · 5
the European Union. Modest progress, such as the 1993 Oslo peace pro-
cess, however encouraging, was short-lived to be interrupted by military
confrontation. Other efforts toward better understanding in the Muslim
milieu and beyond showed no better results and ended in intercommu-
nal animosities, religious extremism, and narrow political interests. At
this juncture, the beginning of the second decade into the twenty-first
century, the situation remains clouded.
The first section of the book, “Common Interests versus Latent and
Overt Tensions,” begins appropriately with Avigdor Levy’s chapter, “Ot-
toman Attitudes toward the Modernization of Jewish Education in the
Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries.” This study has a dual purpose: to
assess the extent of modernization through education among the Jews of
the Ottoman Empire, and to show the interdependence and common in-
terests manifested both by the Ottoman authorities and the Jewish com-
munities in promoting modern learning. In the modern schools that they
created, as well as in the French-inspired AIU school network, the Ot-
tomans envisioned the essential vehicle to reinforce European-oriented
reforms aimed at halting their decline vis-à-vis Europe. The AIU schools
depended on the Ottoman administration for granting them legitimacy
to operate their oeuvre throughout the empire in the Jewish milieu. The
Ottomans who needed the influence of the AIU readily obliged. They re-
garded the Jews as loyal forces anxious to achieve social mobility, a vital
element to further Ottoman aspirations.
Julia Phillips Cohen’s “‘Zeal and Noise’: Jewish Imperial Allegiance
and the Greco-Ottoman War of 1897” and Ömer Turan’s “Sharing the
Same Fate: Muslims and Jews in the Balkans” fit well with Levy’s open-
ing chapter. They, too, elaborate upon Judeo-Muslim interdependence
and a sense of common destinies. As shown by Cohen, Jews constituted
the single largest ethno-religious group in Salonica and a smaller but
active minority in Izmir during the late nineteenth century. Cohen cor-
roborates Levy’s findings regarding Ottoman patriotism and loyalty and
explains the motives behind Jewish support for Ottoman Muslims in the
context of the empire’s war with Greece in 1897. In fact, she suggests
that many Jews went so far as to identify with Islam itself during this
period as an expression of their commitment to the empire. This pattern
of Jewish allegiance to multilingual and multireligious empires can be
found elsewhere and is perhaps most notable in the Hapsburg context.
Under the late Ottoman state as well, Jews sometimes even surpassed
6 · Michael M. Laskier and Yaacov Lev
the Muslims in their exuberance for imperial causes, much to the con-
sternation of Jewish communal leaders who worried that the behavior
of their coreligionists might have a negative effect on their interactions
with Greek Orthodox Ottomans in the midst of the empire’s war with
Greece. Indeed, some observers suggested that the solidarity Ottoman
Jews expressed with Muslims during the conflict came at the expense of
Greek Orthodox–Jewish relations.
Turan’s study is quite on par with Cohen’s, except that his work
adopts a macro approach and crosses from modern to contemporary his-
tory. He covers central Balkan cities like Edirne and Salonica in the hey-
day of Ottoman rule and subsequently Romania and parts of Yugoslavia
before and after its disintegration in the 1990s. Turan paints a somber
picture of Jewish persecution by Christians and their rescue by Muslims.
In post-Ottoman attacks by Christian nationalists on both Muslims and
Jews, common fate becomes significant. The consequences of the Serbian
nationalist tides in the final decade of the twentieth century—the killing
of hundreds of thousands of Bosnian Muslims and the departure of Jews
from Sarajevo to other lands—are cases in point.
“‘We Don’t Want to Be the Jews of Tomorrow’: Jews and Turks in
Germany after 9/11,” by Gökçe Yurdakul and Y. Michal Bodemann, and
“Jews and Muslims ‘Downunder’: Emerging Dialogue and Challenge,”
by Suzanne Rutland, exemplify the problems Jews and Muslims con-
tend with in the Western world. The chapter on Germany is more in line
with the preceding studies on the former Ottoman Empire and the Bal-
kans accentuating commonalities, shared destinies, and the necessity for
interdependence.
The Judeo-Muslim connection in Germany, a member-state of the
European Union, centers on the large Turkish-Muslim community that
seeks to emulate German Jewry of the past and present. Turkish Mus-
lim immigrants in the new geography familiarize themselves with the
German-Jewish narrative of historic sufferings and associate their own
concerns over racism with the ostracizing of Jews under the Third Reich.
Muslim communal leaders compare the Holocaust with the fire bombing
by German rightist extremists of Turkish houses in Mölln (1992); they use
today’s Jewish community organizations as examples of how to organize
as a minority; and Turkish immigrant associations claim minority rights
identical to those of German Jews from the authorities.
Simultaneously, Muslim leaders evinced some solidarity with their
Introduction · 7
Jewish compatriots, notably in Berlin, where attempts were made to forge
an alliance against discrimination. The situation in Germany is different
than in France, where Muslim-Jewish tensions in the past ran high and
even resulted in violence. Anti-Muslim activity following 9/11 attributed
to racist elements reinforced fears—real or imaginary—that the fate of the
country’s Turkish Muslim minority in the twenty-first century might not
differ from the Jewish tragedies of the previous century.
Rutland presents a less idyllic appraisal of Muslim-Jewish interaction
in Australia and relates more to latent and overt tensions. In the first thor-
ough study of its kind, she engenders aspects of this relationship based
on vast field research. As in the European Union, Australia has absorbed
numerous Jewish immigrants after World War II and, since 1970, major
waves of Muslim immigrants. A country that prior to 1945 implemented
tough immigration policies and remained relatively homogeneous for
hundreds of years now confronted the challenges of multiculturalism.
The Jews, as a group, are largely of European origins. The Muslims,
however, were far more heterogeneous coming from Malaysia, Indone-
sia, Pakistan, India, Turkey, Lebanon, Afghanistan, and Iran, being both
Sunnis and Shi῾ites. Rutland addresses the problems of Muslim integra-
tion, anti-Muslim sentiments, and the concurrent increase of anti-Jewish
trends among both Muslims and the extreme right occurring since the
early 1990s. Despite the goodwill of some Australian political leaders, the
authorities failed to cope successfully with the animosities nurtured by
the growing Muslim population toward the Jews as well as the hatred of
the Australian Christian majority against Muslims.
The efforts and resources channeled to soothe tensions were meager.
Australian multiculturalism today is not one of accommodation but of
aggression. In this sense, as late as 2011, there are no better prospects
there for accommodation than in the Netherlands, which in the past en-
couraged Christian-Jewish-Muslim multicultural dialogue. In France, as-
similation of all elements of the population to the society, promoted long
ago as an alternative to the multicultural model, has thus far failed, too.
The Christian animosity toward Muslims is one thing. The main reason
for Muslim-Jewish tensions, as in France, has probably less to do with
the Israel-Palestine issue than with Muslim frustration over low socio-
economic burdens. The Muslims resent the privileged social position
of Australian Jews, and young Muslims, radicalized by militant imāms
and inspired by Islamist philosophies of the Saudi Arabian Wahhabi and
8 · Michael M. Laskier and Yaacov Lev
Egyptian Salafi streams, regard the Jews as their enemies and allies of
the establishment. Rutland’s analysis more closely resembles the German
case study in one aspect: Australian Muslims replaced the Jews as the
new and main undesired “others.”
The second section of this book, “Socioeconomic and Political Interac-
tion in Arab Lands and Central Asia: Toward Jewish Immigration,” fo-
cuses on the precolonial, colonial, and postcolonial scenes in Arab lands
and Central Asia. The common threads weaving through are Judeo-Mus-
lim existence prior to Jewish communal disintegration through immigra-
tion and, in the case of Libya and Uzbekistan, the actual immigration
process.
Except for Aden, Yemen was an independent entity beginning in 1918
under the Imamate. Bat-Zion Eraqi Klorman’s essay, “Yemen: Muslim
and Jewish Interaction in the Tribal Sphere,” analyzes the striking resem-
blance of tribal dissension in Yemen and Arab-Berber unrest in southern
Morocco where local chieftains were resentful of the Sharifian Sultan-
ate and central authorities. In both Yemen and Morocco, there existed a
sizable Jewish minority that benefited from Muslim protection yet lived
a precarious existence. The partial exposure of Yemen to Europe in the
twentieth century—similar to the Moroccan situation—helped connect
the population to the world economy but weakened the economic foun-
dation of the tribes, Jews included. The study elaborates on the dhimmi
status of the Jews, the latter’s response to tribal customary law, and the
Muslims’ attitude toward Jewish religion and customs. Based on oral his-
tory and written sources, Eraqi Klorman provides the historical, social,
and economic background for the eventual Jewish immigration to Israel.
In his essay, “In Search of Jewish Farmers: Jews, Agriculture, and the
Land in Rural Morocco,” Daniel J. Schroeter connects with Eraqi Klor-
man’s conclusions about Jewish-Muslim life in rural Yemen. Although
both studies describe Jewish societies in a tribal setting destined to be
dissolved through immigration, Schroeter’s analysis centers on a coun-
try that was dominated by a French administration. For many decades
it was reported by different people—Israeli immigration emissaries of
the Jewish Agency, foreign travelers, and officials of the colonial admin-
istration—that major pockets of Jewish farmers existed throughout rural
Morocco.
Schroeter, a social historian who studied Moroccan rural society up
close, challenges what he regards as no more than a myth. True, there
Introduction · 9
were pockets of agricultural Jews in the central High Atlas Mountains
and elsewhere in the country, but no more than that. The majority of
them were petty merchants and artisans. Often they sold the agricultural
products of the Muslims in the rural markets (suqs), which was part of
the economic coexistence between the two groups. Jews who did pur-
sue farming were largely landless and held land owned by Muslims in
usufruct. As Schroeter observes, “The fact that most Jews were in profes-
sions other than agriculture, the occupation of the vast majority of the
Muslim population, was to the Jews a mark of their distinction, indeed
even demonstrating their superiority over non-Jews.” After many years
since the resettlement of most of Moroccan Jewry in Israel, older Muslims
remembered this distinction.
Dalit Atrakchi’s essay on “The Moroccan Nationalist Movement and
Its Attitude toward Jews and Zionism” attests to some of the dominant
political complexities faced by Muslims and the dilemmas confronting
Jews. Atrakchi tackles à la fois the tension looming large between local na-
tionalists and Zionism in mid-twentieth-century Morocco, its relevance
to the Arab-Israeli conflict, and the status of Moroccan Jewry in the tran-
sition of their country from a colonized entity to an independent nation-
state. She confirms that Morocco’s geographical remoteness from the
Middle East conflict was hardly a factor in the decision whether or not
local nationalists ought to identify in solidarity with the Arab struggle
over Palestine. This affected Judeo-Muslim relations negatively mostly
in the urban areas.
At the same time, Moroccan Jewry contributed to the weakening of
Judeo-Muslim understanding. They refused to take the side of the na-
tionalists in the struggle for statehood, hoping quietly that French and
Spanish colonial presence would endure indefinitely. Finding themselves
positioned between the colonizers and the colonized, the Jews were pres-
sured by each side to embrace its cause. It became apparent to the na-
tionalists that the Jews—at least inwardly—supported the colonialists.
These realities convinced the majority of Jews that they should opt for
departure to Israel, France, and the Americas.
In Libya, the tumultuous atmosphere clouding Muslim-Jewish coex-
istence was far more pronounced. This is clearly shown by Rachel Si-
mon’s “Jewish-Muslim Relations in Libya,” especially during the Italian
colonization (1911–43), the British Military Administration (1943–52), and
independent Libya. Under Italy, Jews had benefited from modernization;
10 · Michael M. Laskier and Yaacov Lev
the more successful ones slowly adapted to Italian language and culture.
Nonetheless, as Italy promoted fascist ideologies, the Jews, more than
the Muslims, became vulnerable to sanctions that in 1938 included anti-
Semitic racial legislation. The temporary Italian-German control over
Libya from 1940 until 1943 exposed them to great dangers that were al-
most as severe as European Jewry at the time. While the British Military
Administration eliminated these dangers, the tenuous conditions of the
Jews were revived in November 1945 and June 1948. On both occasions
Muslim-inspired anti-Jewish violence erupted into pogroms due to eco-
nomic, nationalist, and religious factors, as well as the intensification of
the Arab-Israeli conflict.
By 1952, most Jews had left Libya. Simon does not neglect the fate
of the few thousands who remained. Though unharmed for the most
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |