parture as an escape—rather than as a choice—the various factors people
weighed when making the difficult decision to leave are absent. This es-
say is meant to begin to fill in these blanks. It is not only an effort to tell
the story of the end of the Jewish community in this particular corner of
the world, but also to suggest an approach that might be used to tell the
story of the mid-twentieth-century mass migration of Jews from Muslim
lands in North Africa and the Middle East.
Background: History and Culture of Central Asia’s Jews
The Jews’ migration at the turn of the last century can only be understood
in the context of their long history in the region. While little information
is available about how and when Jews appeared in Central Asia, the data
available suggests that the first to arrive were among those who were
exiled—or whose ancestors were exiled—from the land of Israel in 586
bce at the hands of the Babylonians. They were among those who moved
eastward, probably as merchants along trade routes spreading out from
Babylonia (contemporary Iraq) into the territory that is today Iran.
2
They
moved further east to Afghanistan and to the fertile river valleys and oa-
ses of present-day Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. This area, classically called
Transoxiana, was controlled by various Turkic and Persian empires for
centuries.
3
The Jews who settled there spoke Persian and were closely
connected to other Jews in the Persian sphere of influence (such as those
in the territories that would become modern Iran and Afghanistan).
The Jews of Transoxiana also shared much in common with their
neighbors. Unlike the Turkic nomadic peoples who lived in the area that
would become present-day Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan,
the people among whom the Jews lived spoke Persian and were seden-
tary inhabitants of Transoxiana’s urban centers.
Where Have All the Jews Gone? Mass Migration from Independent Uzbekistan · 201
By the late fifteenth century, Uzbek dynasts (settled people of Turkic
lineage) conquered the land and divided it into loosely governed terri-
tories called “khanates” or “emirates.” The Jews of the region clustered
primarily in the Bukharan Khanate, where the cosmopolitan silk-route
cities Samarkand and Bukhara were located. Although these Jews were
still closely identified with the Persian-speaking Jewish population of
the larger geographical region, it was the emergence of the Bukharan
Khanate that set in motion the formation of their separate identity as
“Bukharan Jews.”
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, the Russians began coloniz-
ing the area, taking control of large parts of the khanates’ territories. In
1920, when the Soviets incorporated the region into the USSR, they faced
little local resistance, as the khanates’ boundaries had not coincided with
existing linguistic or ethnic borders.
With no sense of national (or even proto-national) identity in the re-
gion, the Jews were not viewed as foreign inhabitants. Rather, their inclu-
sion in and exclusion from the population among whom they lived was
derived from two other aspects of the region’s social patterns. The first
was linked to the dynamic between the sedentary and nomadic peoples,
and the second was related to the fact that unlike the majority of non-
Slavic people in Central Asia, they were not Muslim.
The Jews were sedentary like most others who lived in the khanates’
urban centers. Among these sedentary peoples, however, a distinction
was drawn between the Tajiks and the Uzbeks. The Tajiks, who were of
Persian stock, had always lived in the settled areas, whereas the Uzbeks,
who were of Turkic stock and were descendants of the region’s nomadic
conquerors, had become sedentary over time. Despite these differences,
contemporary scholars posit that these identities were not significant
boundary markers. Neither Tajik identity nor Uzbek identity was strong
enough to unify groups in a call for special rights or distinct sovereign
territories. Nineteenth-century travelers note that Uzbeks and Tajiks lived
side by side, they did not distinguish themselves with much “precision,
consistency or linguistic significance,” nor did they have distinct cultural
traditions.
4
Indeed, vis-à-vis the Kyrgyz, Turkomen, and Kazakhs, who
were still largely nomadic, the Uzbeks and Tajiks shared a strong sense
of commonality. So, while terms “Uzbek” and “Tajik” did carry some
historical value for the people who asserted these identities, their shared
culture, which set them off from neighboring nomadic groups, more
202 · Alanna E. Cooper
strongly informed their conceptions of who they were. In this sense, the
Jews very much belonged to this group, sharing most elements of the
settled peoples’ culture, including dress, cuisine, architecture, language
and custom.
5
However, historians make it clear that as Jews living in a predomi-
nantly Muslim society, they were still outsiders. As dhimmi, they were al-
lowed a degree of tolerance and protection in return for their acceptance
of certain discriminatory measures.
6
In Central Asia, like other areas un-
der Muslim rule, these measures included numerous prohibitions. Jews
were allowed to repair existing synagogues, but were not permitted to
build new ones. They were allowed to build homes as long as they were
no higher than any Muslim home in the area. They were not permit-
ted to ride donkeys or horses, but had to transport themselves by foot
alone. They were required to pay a special poll tax, which the Muslim
receiver acknowledged by delivering a slap in the face. Jewish men were
not permitted to wear elaborate, fashionable belts and could only close
their robes with a “simple rope.”
7
So too, Jewish men were not permit-
ted to wear turbans like Muslim men. Instead, they were allowed only
a particular style hat called a “tilpak,” which signified their identity as
Jews.
8
Their homes were also marked as Jewish by a dark or dirty cloth
that they were forced to nail to their front doors.
9
Finally, the evidence of
a Jew was inadmissible in any court cases that involved a Muslim.
10
Such
restrictions were not adhered to evenly during the many centuries that
the Jews lived in Central Asia under Muslim rule. In periods of economic
and social stability, the restrictions were generally relaxed, whereas in
periods of hardship or crisis, they tended to be more strictly enforced.
In the late nineteenth century, Russia’s encroachment upon Central
Asia brought improvements in communication and travel, new avenues
for trade, and new forms of technology. Russian colonial efforts also in-
troduced western, secular ideologies to the region. As new worldviews
began to undermine the traditional ones that were dominant in the area,
the stigma attached to the Jews was also undermined. Under colonial
rule the label dhimmi began to lose its meaning, and the lines dividing
Muslim and Jew lost their harshness.
The distinction between Muslim and Jew further eroded as a result of
the antireligious policies that the Soviets imposed on Central Asia when
the area came under their control. Synagogues were shut down, as were
Where Have All the Jews Gone? Mass Migration from Independent Uzbekistan · 203
mosques. Khomlos where children studied Jewish traditional teachings
were shut down, as were kittabs. The Soviets also saw to it that celebra-
tions of rites of passage, such as weddings and births, came under gov-
ernment control. Public aspects of these events came to be structured
around civil idiom rather than around traditional religious practice. The
result was a further blurring of differences between Jews and Muslims.
The fading of these differences, however, should not be overstated. So-
viet antireligious campaigns were not as harshly enforced in Central Asia
as they were in western parts of the USSR. Furthermore, the region’s slow
pace of industrialization and urbanization allowed the traditional orga-
nization of society to remain largely intact. People had little incentive
to leave their hometowns in search of employment, education, or high
culture. Geographic mobility, therefore, remained low and social bound-
aries remained high. In Uzbekistan, intermarriage between Uzbeks and
non-Uzbeks was rare, and the locals maintained use of their native lan-
guage—as opposed to Russian—as their first language.
11
Similar patterns
were found among Central Asia’s Jews. Almost every city and town in
Uzbekistan and Tajikistan that was home to a Jewish community had
a Jewish mahallah (residential quarter). Throughout the Soviet era, Jew-
ish populations remained concentrated in these mahallahs, which func-
tioned as centers of Jewish life. The communities’ physical boundaries
reinforced their social boundaries. Rates of intermarriage with non-Jews
remained low, and a strong sense of Jewish identity persisted.
12
In 1989, on the eve of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 35,000
Bukharan Jews lived in Uzbekistan and 10,000 in Tajikistan. By 1993, the
first time I visited the region, a majority had already emigrated, leaving
behind only some 20,000.
13
Over the years, that number continued to
dwindle. With less than 1,000 remaining in Central Asia today, Bukharan
Jews have worked to rebuild community life in their new homes in Israel,
the United States, and Austria. They have opened schools, created news-
papers, built synagogues and community centers, and formed theater
groups in an effort to maintain cultural and social continuity with the
past while also adapting to the new circumstances they encounter.
This article focuses on their emigration, the reasons for the sudden
massive population upheaval, and the factors they considered in decid-
ing to leave their longtime Diaspora homes. Given the Bukharan Jews’
deep roots in the region and the ways in which they had come to resemble
204 · Alanna E. Cooper
their Muslim neighbors, while also remaining separate, the reasons were
nuanced and multifaceted. I will attempt to capture this complexity by
analyzing the process from a variety of angles.
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