Didactics of Translation: Text in Context

ήθϋ ϦϣΎΜϟ΍ ϱϮΑήΘϟ΍ ήϤΗΆϤϟ΍ Ϧϋ ήϳήϘΗ

ΔϴΑήΘϟ΍ ήϳίϭ ΢ΘΘϓ΍ " ΢ϟΎμϟ΍ ϥΎδϧϹ΍ ΕΎϣϮϘϣϭ ϲΑήόϟ΍ ϦσϮϟ΍ ϲϓ ΔϴΑήΘϟ΍ " έΎόη ΖΤΗ ΔϴΘϳϮϜϟ΍ ϦϴϤϠόϤϟ΍ ΔϴόϤΟ ϪΘϣΎϗ΃ ϱάϟ΍ ήθϋ ϦϣΎΜϟ΍ ϱϮΑήΘϟ΍ ήϤΗΆϤϟ΍ ΔϟΎϛϮϟΎΑ ϲϟΎόϟ΍ ϢϴϠόΘϟ΍ ήϳίϭ
.αέΎϣ 31 ϰϟ· 26 Ϧϣ ΓήΘϔϟ΍ ϲϓ
ΔϤϠϛ ΔϴΑήΘϟ΍ ήϳίϭ ϚϟΫ ΪόΑ ϰϘϟ΃ ϢΛ ˬϢϴϜΤϟ΍ ήϛάϟ΍ Ϧϣ Γήτϋ ΕΎϳ΁ ΓϭϼΘΑ ϞϔΤϟ΍ ϞϬΘγ΍ϭ
.ΔϳϮΑήΘϟ΍ Ε΍ήϤΗΆϤϟ΍ ΪϘϋ ϲϓ ΍άϫ ΎϬΠϬϧ ϦϴϤϠόϤϟ΍ ΔϴόϤΟ ΎϬϴϓ ήϜηϭ ήϤΗΆϤϟ΍ ϑϮϴπΑ ΎϬϴϓ ΐΣέ

ϰϟ· ΎϫΩήϳϭ ΔϴΑήΘϟ΍ ϑ΍Ϊϫ΃ ϝϭΎϨΘϳ Ϫϧ΃ ΚϴΣ ήϤΗΆϤϟ΍ ωϮοϮϣ ΔϴϤϫ΃ ϰϟ· ήϳίϮϟ΍ Ϊϴδϟ΍ ϩϮϧϭ ϲϫ ΕΎϘϠτϨϣ ΔδϤΧ ϲϓ ΪΤΘΗ ΢ϟΎμϟ΍ ϥΎδϧϹ΍ ΕΎϣϮϘϣ ϥ΃ ϰϟ· έΎη΃ϭ ϞϣΎϜΗϭ ϝϮϤη ϲϓ ΎϬϗΎϘΘη΍ ΔϳϮΑήΘϟ΍ ΔϴϠϤόϟ΍ έϮΤϣ ϥΎδϧϹ΍ ϞόΟϭ ήμόϟ΍ ΕΎϳΪΤΗ ΔϬΟ΍Ϯϣϭ ϢϠδϤϟ΍ ϲΑήόϟ΍ ϊϤΘΠϤϟ΍ ΔόϴΒσ
ϢϬϠϋΎϔΗϭ ϪΑ Ϫ΋ΎϨΑ΃ νϮϬϧ ϰϟ· ϲΑήόϟ΍ ϊϤΘΠϤϟ΍ ΔΟΎΣϭ ήλΎόϤϟ΍ ϱϮΑήΘϟ΍ ήϜϔϟ΍ Δγ΍έΩ ΔϴϤϫ΃ϭ ϰϟ· ϱΩΆΗ ΓΩΪόΘϣ ϊϴο΍Ϯϣ Ϫϴϓϭ ΔϣϷ΍ ΓΪΣϮΑ ϚδϤΘϠϟ ΓϮϋΩ ήΒΘόϳ ήϤΗΆϤϟ΍ ΍άϫ ϥ΃ ϑΎο΃ϭ .Ϫόϣ ϲϓ ϞϤόϟ΍ ΔϤϴϗ ΖγήϏ ΍Ϋ· ϻ· ξϬϨΗ ϻ ϢϣϷ΍ ϥ΃ ϝΎϗϭ .ήϴΨϟ΍ ϞϴΒγ ϰϠϋ ϥϭΎόΘϟ΍ϭ ΩϮϬΠϟ΍ ΪϴΣϮΗ
.ϕίήϟ΍ ΐδϛ ϲϓ Ϫδϔϧ ϰϠϋ ΩΎϤΘϋϻ΍ ϰϠϋ ϥΎδϧϹ΍ ΖΑέϭ ΎϬ΋ΎϨΑ΃ αϮϔϧ

Evaluation:

x Number of students taking the test: 15
x Number of successful translations: 15
Conclusion:
Once they were shown the features usually associated with the entity- oriented exposition text type, the students were more conscious of what they were doing, and their translations were much more acceptable.
Pre-test: Argumentative text-type (through-argumentation)
The testees were asked to translate the following English text into Arabic:
The best schools are those that teach children to be their own masters, willing and capable to work, rather than to be good and obedient only as long as they are under control. Children must be taught to become men who will not need to be watched in everyday life, and they should be educated in such a manner as to be capable of mastering themselves.
Thus, the way to freedom always leads from education to self- education. It is therefore the main task of every educator to emancipate his students, to open up new prospects for them, to teach them how to learn, work and create rather than to fill their heads with ready-made clichés and stereotypes. The only must for a teacher is the capacity to transmit and communicate, the capacity to use metaphors that will present new knowledge to the pupils in as vivid and concrete form as possible. School is not merely a preparation for later life, it is life itself in which students test their abilities and simultaneously become free.
(Text cited by Hatim, B. 1997 b)

Evaluation:

x Number of students taking the test: 23
x Number of successful translations: 12

The students who produced successful translations had some problems identifying the thesis which, in this text, consists of two sentences.

After translating the first sentence using a nominal sentence structure introduced by the particle ϥ΍, almost all the testees switched to a verbal sentence structure for the translation of the second sentence of the thesis, thus breaking the flow of the thesis and impeding a smooth transition to the arguments developing this thesis. The following sample translations of the beginning of the text by two students clearly illustrate this unsuccessful rendering; the texts are cited by Hatim (1997 b):
Translation 1:
ΓΩ΍έϹ΍ ϢϬϴϓ ωέΰΗϭ ˬϢϬδϔϧ΃ ϲϤϠόϣ ΍ϮϧϮϜϴϟ ΩϻϭϷ΍ ΪόΗ ϲΘϟ΍ ϚϠΗ ϲϫ αέ΍ΪϤϟ΍ Ϟπϓ΃ ϥ·
.ϲΑήϤϟ΍ ΓήπΣ ϲϓ ΍Ϯϣ΍ΩΎϣ Ϧϴόϴτϣ ˯ΎϋΩϭ ΍ϮϧϮϜϳ ϥ΃ Ϧϣ ϻΪΑ ϞϤόϟ΍ ϰϠϋ ΓέΪϘϟ΍ϭ Ύπϳ΃ ϲϐΒϨϳϭ ˬϢϬΘΒϗ΍ήϣ ϰϟ· ΔΟΎΤϟ΍ ϥϭΩ ϻΎΟέ ΍ϮΤΒμϳ ϒϴϛ ΩϻϭϷ΍ ϢϴϠόΗ ϲϐΒϨϳ ΎϤϛ
.ϢϬδϔϧ΃ ϰϠϋ Γήτϴδϟ΍ Ϧϣ ϢϬϨϜϤϳ ϞϜθΑ ϢϬΘϴΑήΗ

Translation 2:

ϰϠϋ ΓέΪϘϟ΍ϭ ΔΒϏήϟ΍ ϢϬΤϨϤΗϭ ϢϬδϔϧ΃ ΔϴΑήΗ ϝΎϔσϷ΍ ϦϘϠΗ ϲΘϟ΍ ϲϫ αέ΍ΪϤϟ΍ ϦδΣ΃ ϥ΃ ΪΠϧΪϗ ϥ΃ ϝΎϔσϷ΍ ϰϠϋ ΐΠϳ .ϲΑήϤϟ΍ ΓήπΣ ϲϓ ΍Ϯϣ΍ΩΎϣ Ϧϴόϴτϣϭ ˯ΎϋΩϭ ΍ϮϧϮϜϳ ϥ΃ Ϧϣ ϻΪΑ ϞϤόϟ΍
΍ϮΑήϳ ϥ΃ ϢϬϴϠϋ ΐΠϳ Ϫϧ΃ ΎϤϛϭ ˬΎϴϣϮϳ ϢϬΘΒϗ΍ήϣ ϰϟ· ΔΟΎΤϟ΍ ϥϭΩ ϻΎΟέ ϥϮΤΒμϳ ϒϴϛ ΍ϮϤϠόΘϳ
.ϢϬδϔϧ΃ ϢϴϠόΗ ΍ϮόϴτΘδϴϟ ΞϬϨϟ΍ ΍άϫ ϰϠϋ

Interview:

The students who produced successful translations were unable to verbalise clearly their thoughts concerning the processes and strategies resorted to in the translation. The students who got it wrong could not understand why I had marked their translations, especially the thesis chunk, as wrong. For them, the translation was good and needed no further comment.
Lecture: (through-argumentation)
The following points were tackled in the lecture:
x The different types of argumentative texts
x The characteristics of an argumentative text type
x The constituent parts of a through-argumentative text along with its linguistic characteristics
x The translation approach to be adopted
x The role of the translator

Post-test:

The students were asked to retranslate the pre-test English text into Arabic.
Evaluation:
x Number of students taking the test: 23
x Number of successful translations: 21
Interview:
This time nearly all the students were able to verbalize their thoughts coherently regarding the strategies they adopted when translating into Arabic.
In answer to the question: “What did you do to produce a good translation?” they answered that they had invoked their knowledge of the structure of through- argumentation, i.e. a thesis cited and then followed by arguments to support it.
Verification test:
The students were asked to translate another text of the through- argumentation type into English. The text is given below:
ξόΑ ϒϴο΃ ϥ΃ Ωϭ΃ " ΔϨγϮΒϟ΍ Δϟ΄δϣ ϲϓ ΎϧϮϋΪΧ ΍άϜϫ " ϱΪϳϮϫ ϲϤϬϓ ϝΎϘϣ ϰϠϋ ΎΒϴϘόΗ ω΍ήμϟ΍ ΔϠδϠδϟ Ω΍ΪΘϣ΍ ϲϫ ϚγήϬϟ΍ϭ ΔϨγϮΒϟ΍ Δϴπϗ ϥ΃ Ϫϴϓ Ϛη ϻ ΎϤϣ .ωϮοϮϤϠϟ ΔϠϤϜϤϟ΍ ρΎϘϨϟ΍ Ώήϐϟ΍ ωΰϔϟ ϯΪλϭ Ϧϳήθόϟ΍ ϥήϘϟ΍ ΔϴΒϴϠλ ΎϬϧ΃ ϝϮϗ΃ ΩΎϛ΃ ϞΑ .Ώήϐϟ΍ϭ ϡϼγϹ΍ ϦϴΑ ϲΑέϭϷ΍ ϻ Ϛϟάϟ ˬΔϴϋϮϴθϟ΍ έΎϴϬϧ΍ ΪόΑ ΎλϮμΧ ˬΎΑέϭϷ ϪΣΎδΘϛ΍ϭ ϡϼγϹ΍ ϡΪϘΗϭ έΎθΘϧ΍ Ϧϣ ΐϴϫήϟ΍ ϝΫΎΨΘϟΎΑ ΐΗΎϜϟ΍ ΎϬϔμϳ ϲΘϟ΍ ϒϗ΍ϮϤϟ΍ ξόΑ άΨΘΗ ϰϤψόϟ΍ Ώήϐϟ΍ ϝϭΩ ΎϨϳ΃έ Ύϣ ΍Ϋ· ΍ήϴΜϛ ζϫΪϨϧ ϲΘϟ΍ ˯ΎϓϮΠϟ΍ Ε΍˯΍ΪϨϟ΍ϭ ΕΎΤϳήμΘϟΎΑ έϮϣϷ΍ ϊϴϴϤΗϭ ˬϚγήϬϟ΍ϭ ΔϨγϮΒϟ΍ ϲϤϠδϣ ϩΎΠΗ ΓϻΎΒϣϼϟ΍ϭ
.ΎϤϟΎχ ωϭήΗ ϻϭ ΎϨϛΎγ ϙήΤΗ ϻ
ΓέΰΠϤϟ΍ ϩάϫ ϊϨλ ϲϓ ϙέΎθΗ ϯήΧ΄Α ϭ΃ ΔϘϳήτΑ ΔϴΑέϭϷ΍ ϝϭΪϟ΍ ϊϴϤΟ ϥ΃ ήϣϷ΍ ΔϘϴϘΤϓ ΐϳϭάΘϟ ω΍ήμϟ΍ ΍άϫ ΖϗϮϟ΍ βϔϧ ϲϓ ΔϠϐΘδϣϭ ˬϲϣϮϗ ϭ΃ ϲϗήϋ ω΍ήλ Ϫϧ΄Α ϢϟΎόϟ΍ ΔϤϫϮϣ ΔϳήθΒϟ΍
˯ΎϨΑϷ΍ϭ Ώήμϟ΍ ϱΪϳ΃ ϰϠϋ ϥϮϠΘϘϳ ΕΎϬϣϷ΍ϭ ˯ΎΑϵΎϓ .ϥΎϘϠΒϟ΍ Ϧϣ ΔόϘΒϟ΍ ϚϠΗ ϲϓ ΔϤϠδϤϟ΍ ήλΎϨόϟ΍
Ε΍ΪϋΎδϤϟ΍ ϚϠΗ Ύϣϭ ΪΣ΍ϭ ϭΪόϟ΍ϭ ΔϛήΘθϣ ΔΤϠμϤϟΎϓ ˬΎΑέϭ΃ Ε΍ήϜδόϣϭ ΊΟϼϣ ϲϓ ϥϭήμϨϳ ϒϗϮϣ ήϜϨΘδϳϭ ΩΪϨϳϭ ήϫΎΠϳ ϻ ϲϜϟ ϲϣϼγϹ΍ϭ ϲΑήόϟ΍ϭ ϲϤϟΎόϟ΍ ήϴϤπϠϟ ΕΎϨϜδϣ ϻ· Δϴ΋΍άϐϟ΍
.ϝϭΪϟ΍ ϚϠΗ
(Text cited by Hatim, B.
1997 b)
Evaluation:
x Number of students taking the test: 15
x Number of successful translations: 15

Conclusion:

Having gained some knowledge about the structure of the through- argumentation text type, the students were not only able to translate correctly, but they were also able to justify their translations.
Pre-test: Argumentative text type (explicit counter-argument)
The testees were asked to translate the following texts into Arabic:
Despite its many faults, I should not like to suggest that I regret the appearance of this book, or to deny that it will have its uses. Contemporary Turkish literature and thought are so little known outside Turkey that any book which opens a window upon this culture for those who do not know the language is to be welcomed. When viewed in this light, the inaccuracies and confusions in the present work are considerably outweighed by the large mass of authentic and interesting information which the author has assembled.
(Text cited by Hatim, B.
1997 b)
Evaluation:
x Number of students taking the test: 23
x Number of successful translations: 5
Although the students producing unsuccessful translations indicated that they were aware of the essential elements of the explicit counter- argumentative structure, namely, the presence of a signal of concession, a thesis, a counter-thesis and a conclusion, they manifested a lack of awareness of the fourth element of structure, namely, substantiation. The latter was translated into Arabic without a linking word such as ϑ or ϚϟΫ ϥ΍, which would have shown its logical connection to the precedent structural elements. To illustrate this point, two sample translations by two students are given below:
Translation 1:
ϥϭήΧϵ΍ ˯ϲδϳ ϥ΃ ϰϨϤΗ΃ ϻ ϲϨϧΈϓ ˬΓήϴΜϛ ΏϮϴϋϭ ˯ΎτΧ΃ Ϧϣ ΏΎΘϜϟ΍ ΍άϫ ϪϳϮΘΤϳ ΎϤϣ ϢϏήϟΎΑ ˬΎϳ΍ΰϣ Ϧϣ Ϫϴϓ ΎϤϟ έΎϜϧ· Ϫϧ΃ ϭ΃ ΏΎΘϜϟ΍ ΍άϫ έϮϬχ Ϧϋ ϒγ΃ Ϫϧ΃ ϰϠϋ ΍άϫ ϲϣϼϛ ϥϭήδϔϳϭ ϲϤϬϓ ςϠδϳ ΏΎΘϛ ϱ΃ ϞόΠϴγ ΎϴϛήΗ ΝέΎΧ ΍ήϴΜϛ ΍έΎθΘϧ΍ ϥΎϓήόϳ ϻ ϦϳήλΎόϤϟ΍ ΏΩϷ΍ϭ ήϜϔϟ΍ϥϮϛ
.ϪΑ ΎΒΣήϣ ΎΌϴη ΎϬΑ ϑήόϳϭ ΓέΎπΤϟ΍ ϩάϫ ϰϠϋ ˯Ϯπϟ΍
Translation 2:
Ϫϧ΃ ήϜϧ΃ ϭ΃ ΏΎΘϜϟ΍ ΍άϫ έϮϬχ ϰϠϋ ϒγ΄Η΃ ϲϨϧ΃ ϝϮϗ΃ ϥ΃ άΒΣ΃ ϻ ˬϪ΋ΎτΧ΃ Ϧϣ ϢϏήϟ΍ ϰϠϋ Ύόγ΍ϭ ΍έΎθΘϧ΍ ϰϘϠϳ ϻ ήλΎόϤϟ΍ ϲϛήΘϟ΍ ήϜϔϟ΍ϭ ΏΩϷ΍ ϥ΃ φΣϼϧ .ΓήϴΜϛ ϊϓΎϨϣ Ϫϟ ϥϮϜΗ ϑϮγ
.ΎϴϛήΗ ΝέΎΧ

In addition to being unaware of the substantiation element, one student changed the unmarked word order of the thesis and counter-thesis, thus relegating the thesis to a secondary position and producing a slight change in emphasis:

ήλΎόϤϟ΍ ϲϛήΘϟ΍ ΏΩϷ΍ ήΒΘόϳ .ϪΑϮϴϋ Ϧϣ ϢϏήϟΎΑ ˬΏΎΘϜϟ΍ ΍άϫ έϮϬψϟ ϲϣΪϧ Ϧϋ ήΒϋ΍ Ϧϟ
.ΎϴϛήΗ ΝέΎΧ ΩϭΪΤϣ Ζϴλ ΍Ϋ
Interview:
The students who produced a successful translation said that they resorted to their knowledge of how to write argumentative essays in English.

Lecture:
The following points were dealt with:

x The constituent parts of an explicit counter-argument: a signal of concession, a thesis cited to be opposed, a counter-thesis, substantiation and a conclusion
x The characteristics of the language used
x The role of the translator
Post-test:
The testees were asked to retranslate the pre-test text.
Evaluation:
x Number of students: 20
x Number of successful translations: 19
Interview:
One of the students who managed to produce a successful translation after failing to do so the first time said: “In the post-test translation, I made use of my awareness of text types, more particularly, the counter- argumentative text type. For this type, a specific text structure and a specific texture are necessary.”
Pre-test: Argumentative text type (suppressed counter-argument) The testees were asked to translate the following text into Arabic:
Even today many theories of education hold that the main task of schools and educators consists in transmitting the acquired historical experience of mankind to the younger generation. Trstenjak was among the first to see that this notion was self-contradictory, because insistence

on traditional experiences stifles the primal freedom-instinct among the young. Pupils treated as mechanical sponges, taking in all that they are told, will not be able to create anything new. Aware of this, in opposition to the authoritarian tradition to teaching, Trstenjak insisted on the importance of “learning how to learn”, of conditioning the young to be creative and to act independently, instead of passively accumulating information to be mechanically reproduced in examinations.

(Text cited by Hatim, B. 1997 b)

Evaluation:

x Number of students taking the pre-test: 20
x Number of successful translations: 9
The students who produced unsuccessful translations failed to signal the shift from the thesis to the counter-thesis. Below are some sample translations which illustrate the point:
Student 1:
αέ΍ΪϤϠϟ ΔϴγΎγϷ΍ ΔϤϬϤϟ΍ ϥ΃ ΓήϜϓ ΖϨϴΑ ΔϴΑήΘϟ΍ ϝϮΣ ΕΎϳήψϧ ΓΪϋ ΍άϫ ΎϨϣϮϳ ϰΘΣ ϥΎϛ ΪϘϟ .ΪϋΎμϟ΍ ϞϴΠϟ΍ ϰϟ· ΔϴϧΎδϧϺϟ ΔΒδΘϜϤϟ΍ ΔϴΨϳέΎΘϟ΍ ΔΑήΠΘϟ΍ ϞϘϧ ϝϮΣ έϮΤϤΘΗ ϦϴγέΪϤϟ΍ϭ
.ΔπϗΎϨΘϣ ΖϧΎϛ ΓήϜϔϟ΍ ϩάϫ ϥ΃ ΔϓήόϤϟ ϦϴϗΎΒδϟ΍ Ϧϣ ϙΎϴϨΘγήΗ

Student 2:

ϦϤϜϳ ϦϴΑήϤϟ΍ϭ αέ΍ΪϤϠϟ ϲγΎγϷ΍ ϞϤόϟ΍ ϥ΃ ΪϘΘόΗ ΔϴΑήΘϟ΍ ϲϓ ΕΎϳήψϧ ΓΪϋ Ζϟ΍ίϻ ϥϵ΍ ΪΤϟ ϙΎϴϨΘγήΗ -ΓΪϋΎμϟ΍ ϝΎϴΟϷ΍ ϰϟ· ΔϴϧΎδϧϹ΍ ΎϬΘΒδΘϛ΍ ϲΘϟ΍ ΔϴΨϳέΎΘϟ΍ ΏέΎΠΘϟ΍ ϞϴλϮΗ ΔϘϳήσ ϲϓ
.ΎϬδϔϧ νέΎόΗ ΓήϜϔϟ΍ ϩάϫ ϥ΃ ϯήϳ

Student 3:

ϙΎϴϨΘγήΗ ΐΗΎϜϟ΍ ϥΎϛ ΩΪμϟ΍ ΍άϫ ϲϓ ...ϥ΃ ΪϘΘόΗ ΔϴΑήΘϟ΍ ϲϓ ΕΎϳήψϧ Ζϟ΍ίϻ ϩάϫ ΎϨϣΎϳ΃ ϰΘΣ
.ϊϗ΍Ϯϟ΍ ϊϣ νέΎόΘΗ ΓήϜϔϟ΍ ϩάϫ ϥ΃ ϰϟ· ϞλϮΗ Ϧϣ ϝϭ΃

Student 4:

...Ϟ΋΍ϭϷ΍ Ϧϣ ϙΎϴϨΘγήΗ ϥΎϛ Ϊϗϭ ...ΓήϜϓ ϰϨΒΘΗ ΔϴΑήΘϠϟ ΕΎϳήψϧ ΓΪϋ Ζϟ΍ίϻ ΍άϫ ΎϨϣϮϳ ϰϟ·
Interview:
The students’ answers as to how they managed to translate successfully were this time clearer and more specific. They all reported invoking the distinctive features of counter-argumentative texts in both English and Arabic, including the omission of counter-argumentative signals in English texts and their necessary presence in Arabic texts.

Lecture:
In this lecture, the students’ attention is drawn to the fact that, unlike explicit counter- argumentation where the counter-argumentative signals are present, there are those counter-argumentative texts in which these signals are omitted or suppressed. In such situations, the students translating into Arabic are warned not to leave out these signals in Arabic since, in this language, they are normally unsuppressed.

Post-text:
The students were asked to translate the following English text into Arabic:
Existing studies of development in the Gulf region have mostly restricted their concern to one aspect of development. A substantial number of surveys of mineral resources, studies on the feasibility of individual projects or the effectiveness of existing undertakings (especially in the oil industry), and studies of the functioning and development of individual economies have been undertaken. There have also been studies dealing with individual social or political aspects of the development process. What is lacking is an overall perspective of development, integrating the political, social and economic aspects, providing some conception of the nature of the economies, societies and policies which are emerging in the Gulf, and assessing the options and alternatives which lie ahead. This study attempts, in an introductory manner, to supply such a perspective.
(Text cited by Hatim, B. 1997 b)
Evaluation:
x Number of students taking the test: 20
x Number of successful translations: 19
Interview:
The students’ answers as to how they managed to translate successfully were this time clearer and more specific. They all reported invoking the distinctive features of counter-argumentative texts in both English and Arabic, including the omission of counter-argumentative signals in English texts and their necessary presence in Arabic texts.

6.