Dictionary of islamic architecture

Further reading:
F.R.Bradlow and M.C.Cairns, 
The Early Cape Muslims: A
Study of their Mosques, Genealogy and Origins,
Cape Town
1978.
Spain (Arabic: al
-
Andalus)
Large country in south-western Europe occupying the
greater part of the Iberian peninsula and known in Arabic
as al-Andalus.
Mosque of Fakhr al-Din, Mogadishu, Somalia (after Garlake)
Songhay

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Large parts of this country were Muslim from the
arrival of the Arab armies in 711 to the fall of the
amirate of Granada in 1492. Before the arrival of the
first Arab armies Spain was ruled by the Visigoths,
warrior nomads from east of Europe who had
recently been converted to Christianity. They in turn
had taken over the country after the collapse of the
Byzantine rule which was a direct continuation of
Roman suzerainty in the country. At the time of the
Arab invasions the Visigothic kingdom was weak
and their king Roderick was not universally
acknowledged.
The Arab conquest was carried out by Musa the
commander of North Africa and his semilegendary
lieutenant Tariq. Within a year Toledo, the Visigothic
capital, had been captured. The speed of the conquest
alarmed the caliph who in 716 summoned the
commander and his general to return. Nevertheless,
the conquest continued northwards and by the 730s
had reached central France where it was finally
checked by Charles Martel at a battle between
Poitiers and Tours. The only area of Spain which
withstood the invasion was the region of Asturias in
the Cantabrian mountains of the north-west. Until
the 750s the province was ruled by governors sent
by the Umayyad caliphs. The Abbasid revolution had
led to the killing of all members of the Umayyad
dynasty with the exception of Abd al-Rahman who
escaped via North Africa to Spain where he defeated
the resident governor Yusuf in a battle near Toledo.
For the next 270 years the country was ruled by the
Umayyad descendants of Abd al-Rahman. The most
West Africa showing extent of Songhay empire in the sixteenth century
Spain (Arabic: al-Andalus)

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Spain (Arabic: al-Andalus)
famous member of this dynasty was Abd al-Rahman
III who reigned for fifty years between 912 and 961.
It was during this reign that the title of the ruler was
changed from amir to caliph and ‘Commander of
the Faithful’ in order to counter the claims of the
Fatimid caliphate. During this period the capital was
Córdoba which became one of the brightest centres
of culture in the Islamic world. Despite this high level
of sophistication, the dynasty itself was prone to
internal divisions and finally collapsed in 1031.
For the next half century Spain was divided into
at least twenty-three independent principalities,
known as the Muluk al-Tawaif, each with its own
court and ruler. The size of these principalities varied
greatly, with some ruling a single city whilst others
like the Aftasids in south-west Spain ruled large areas
of the country. Despite political disunity the Islamic
culture of Spain thrived during this period.
Nevertheless, the Christians of the north-west were
able to exploit divisions amongst the Muslims to
conquer extensive territories. The capture of Toledo
by Alfonso VI of Castile in 1085 showed the weakness
of these principalities and encouraged the conquest
of the Almoravids in 1090.
The Almoravids were a dynasty of fanatical
fundamentalist Berbers from North Africa. Under
their leader Yusuf, the Almoravids invaded Spain
and stemmed the tide of Christian conquest. From
their newly established capital of Marakesh the
Almoravids now ruled a huge area from present-
day Senegal to Spain.
In 1145 the Almoravids, weakened by disunity,
were replaced by the Almohads, another fanatical
Berber group who managed to challenge the
Christian advance. By 1212, however, the Almohads
were driven from Spain by a coalition of Christian
rulers. This left Granada as the only Muslim province
to survive the Christian invasions. Granada was
ruled by the Nasirid dynasty which maintained the
area as a centre of cultural and scientific excel-lence
with the Alhambra at its centre. The Nasirids were
finally ousted from their position in 1492 by the