The Influence of the Norman Conquest upon English Language and Literature

The Influence of the Norman Conquest upon English Language and Literature

Content


Introduction
1. Norman conquest of England
1.1 Preparation of the parties for the conquest and its implementation
1.2 Significance of William the Conqueror's victory in various social spheres
2. The influence of the Norman Conquest on the development of the English language
2.1 Types of French loanwords in English
2.2 Influence of the Norman Conquest on the development of English writing
Conclusion
List of sources used
In charge


This study is devoted to the study of the influence of the Norman Conquest on the development of the English language, as well as changes in the English language caused by certain events of this period.
There are a great many languages and their dialects in the world. Some are divided into groups of related languages, similar in origin, others interact due to all sorts of significant historical processes and military events. All this testifies to the interconnection of languages, namely, the transition of a large number of vocabulary from one language to another. In our work, we examined the influence of the French language on the development of English - one of the most popular for learning as foreign languages in the world, and, in particular, in our country.
The relevance of this study is determined by the need to study the vocabulary that was borrowed during this period of time, as well as other language changes that occurred in the language under the influence of the Norman Conquest and their impact on modern English, because borrowings are a constant phenomenon, and they make up 70% words of the English language and present some difficulty for those who study the language.
The object of the study is the development of the English language during the conquest of England by William of Normandy.
The subject of the research is French borrowings in English.
The purpose of the study is to theoretically and practically consider the influence of the Norman Conquest on the development of the English language.
To achieve the goal, we set the following tasks:

1. 
   get acquainted with the conquest, its prerequisites and preparation;
   
2. 
   conduct a historical analysis of the interaction of two languages (English and French);
   
3. 
   identify types of French borrowings in English, ways of their penetration and adaptation.
   

The scientific novelty of the study is determined by the tasks set, the search and processing of information, taking into account not only linguistic, but also historical factors.
The practical value of the work is determined by the fact that at the moment several foreign languages are being studied in many schools and universities, and therefore knowledge about the relationship of languages, historical and linguistic processes that influenced this is very significant and can greatly facilitate the learning process and memorizing the vocabulary of the English language.
The materials of this work can also be used in the development of textbooks on linguistic and cultural issues, as well as in reference books on borrowings in languages.
The following general scientific and linguistic methods were used in the study:

1. 
   search ;
   
2. 
   comparatively - historical ;
   
3. 
   method of analysis and generalization ;
   
4. 
   word-formation analysis .
   

1. Norman conquest of England


1.1 Preparation of the parties for the conquest and its implementation


At the end of the 10th century, England experienced waves of Scandinavian Viking raids on its lands. The Anglo-Saxon king Ethelred II, seeking to guarantee himself assistance in the fight against the Vikings, in 1002 married Emma, the sister of the Duke of Normandy Richard II. But Ethelred II did not receive support from the Normans, and in 1013 he was forced to flee with his family to Normandy. [9, 23]
By 1016, all of England was captured by the Vikings, and Canute the Great became king, linking England, Denmark and Norway under his rule. The sons of Ethelred II and Emma spent almost thirty years in exile, at the court of the Duke of Normandy. Only in 1042, Edward the Confessor, the eldest son of Ethelred, was lucky enough to regain the throne of England. Brought up in Normandy, Edward, during most of his reign, sought to orient himself towards the Normans in defiance of the powerful Anglo-Danish nobility that dominated the country's state system. In 1051, taking advantage of Earl Godwin's exile, the childless Edward declared the young Duke of Normandy William his successor. In 1052 Godwin returned to England and resumed his control of the state. The nobility was expelled from the country. In the late 50s of the 11th century, the Godwinson family owned the largest counties in England. When Edward the Confessor died in early January 1066, the Anglo-Saxon Witenagemot elected Godwin's son, Harold II, the leader of the national party, as king. [11, 31]
William of Normandy objected to the election of Harold. Relying on the support of King Edward and on the oath of allegiance to Harold, and, appealing to the need to protect the English church from usurpation and tyranny, William put forward his claims to the crown of England and proceeded to collect an armed invasion. [10, 44]
At the same time, Harald the Severe, King of Norway, claimed the English throne, and, having entered into an alliance with the brother of Harold II, Tostig Godwinson, expelled from England, in turn began to prepare for the conquest of England. [9, 437]
The military resources of the Anglo-Saxon state were quite large, but poorly organized. At the end of 1066, King Harold did not have a permanent fleet, apart from a small number of ships from the ports of the southeast coast. Despite the fact that it was possible to collect a significant number of ships through requisitions, it was impossible to form a large fleet in such a short time and keep it in a state of combat readiness. [4, 201] The basis of the ground forces were the housecarls of the king and earls. By the middle of the 11th century, there were approximately 3,000 royal housecarls, the squad of a large earl consisted of 400-500 fighters. In addition to them, Harold had at his disposal detachments of thegns and a national militia of peasants. In full strength, the Anglo-Saxon army was obviously the largest army in Western Europe. [19, 22] The main difficulties of the armed forces of England were the difficulty of concentrating soldiers in the right place, the impossibility of maintaining the army in combat readiness for a long time, the underdevelopment of the castle system as a basic unit of a protective structure, poor familiarity with advanced methods of warfare in Europe, and in addition, inattention to such military branches, like cavalry and archers.
Until 1060, William was busy with internal difficulties and the defense of the borders from the French and Angevin threats. After 1060, the security of Normandy was for some period guaranteed, which opened up opportunities for external expansion. A well-formed military fief system and feudal hierarchy provided the Duke of Normandy with an impressive, well-trained and armed military force . The main striking force of the army was the knightly cavalry. Archers were massively used. Most of the troops were mercenaries. In Normandy there were a large number of petty knights, over whom the dukes before William had no effective control, and whose militancy was used in campaigns in Italy. Wilhelm managed to recruit these knights into his service. He was perfectly familiar with all the nuances of the military art of his time. He enjoyed an unsurpassed reputation as a knight and commander, which attracted the human resources of all Northern France to his army. [13, 253]
The Normans had extensive experience in military operations in small detachments of cavalry from fortress castles, which were rapidly built on the occupied terrain, as strongholds, with the aim of its subsequent control. The battles with the kings of France and the counts of Anjou provided the Normans with an opportunity to improve their strategy of operations against large enemy formations and to normalize clear communication between the branches of the military. William's army consisted of a feudal militia of Norman barons and knights, cavalry and infantry contingents from Brittany, Picardy and other northern French regions, as well as mercenary regiments. Before the invasion of England, William organized a mass construction of ships. [1, 113]
Early in 1066, William began preparations for an invasion of England. Although he obtained consent to this event from the assembly of the barons of his duchy, the forces allocated by them were obviously not enough for such a large-scale and lengthy military operation outside the borders of Normandy. William's name guaranteed an influx of knights from Flanders, Aquitaine, Brittany, Maine and the Norman principalities of southern Italy into his army. As a result, the Norman contingent made up less than fifty percent of the entire army. Wilhelm also received support from the emperor and pope Alexander II, who hoped to consolidate the position of the papacy in England and eliminate the apostate archbishop Stigand. The Pope not only supported the claims of the Duke of Normandy to the English throne, but also gave his blessing to the participants in the invasion. This allowed Wilhelm to give his enterprise the status of a "holy war". [2, 256] The collection was completed by August 1066, but the head north wind for a long time did not allow to start crossing the English Channel. On September 12, Wilhelm moved his regiment from the mouth of the Dives River to the lower reaches of the Somme, to the town of Saint-Valery.
Preparations for the defense were also led by the English king. He gathered a national militia from the southeastern regions of England and deployed troops along the south coast. A new fleet was rapidly created, headed by the king himself. In May, Harold was able to repulse the raid of his rebellious brother Tostig on the eastern regions of the country. Nevertheless, in September the Anglo-Saxon system of naval defense collapsed: a shortage of provisions forced the king to disband the militia and fleet. [12, 379] In mid-September, the army of the Norwegian king Harald the Severe landed in northeastern England. Teaming up with Tostig's allies, on September 20, the Norwegians defeated the army of the northern counties at the Battle of Fulford and conquered Yorkshire. The King of England had to leave his position on the south coast and head north. Having joined his army with the remaining militia, on September 25, at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, Harold completely defeated the Vikings, Harald the Severe and Tostig were killed, and the surviving soldiers of the Norwegian army sailed to Scandinavia. But the significant losses suffered by the British in the battles of Fulford and Stamford Bridge, in particular among the royal housecarls, broke the combat capability of Harold's army. [3, 169]
2 days after the Battle of Stamford Bridge, the direction of the winds in the English Channel changed. The loading of the Norman army onto ships immediately began, and late in the evening of September 27, William's fleet sailed from Saint-Valery. The crossing took all night. The Norman army moved to Hastings, the most favorable port from a strategic point of view. At this place, William erected a fortress and began to wait for the arrival of the English troops, sending small detachments deep into Wessex with the aim of conducting reconnaissance and obtaining food and fodder. [17, 153]
Having learned in York about the landing of the Normans, Harold II sent orders around the country to convene new militias and, without waiting for reinforcements, rushed south. Since he was moving too fast, this did not give additional troops the opportunity to join the royal army. In addition, part of it, mainly light infantry and archers, broke away from the main forces. [6, 76] For 10 days, Harold went from York to London itself and went out to meet the Norman army. The king's advisers recommended waiting for the full collection of troops and only then attacking the enemy. Historians believe that this was his key strategic miscalculation: since Wilhelm was on enemy soil, isolated from his Channel bases, time played into the hands of the British. The Anglo-Saxon troops numbered about 7,000 people, mostly participants in the battle of Stamford Bridge and a militia from the outskirts of London. Despite the speed of the British advance, the effect of surprise was lost. On October 14, 1066, the Norman troops attacked the Anglo-Saxon army after reconnoitering Harold's approach. [11, 213]
At the battle of Hastings, despite valiant resistance, the English troops were defeated. The battle went on for a long time - more than ten hours, which was quite rare for the Middle Ages. The success of the Normans was predetermined by the best fighting efficiency of the warriors, and in addition, the numerous use of archers and heavy cavalry. [3, 170] King Harold and his two brothers were killed, and several thousand English soldiers were left lying on the battlefield. There was no leader left in the country capable of repelling the Normans. The Battle of Hastings was a turning point in the history of England.
After the Battle of Hastings, England was available to the conquerors. In October-November 1066, Kent and Sussex were taken by the Norman army. Queen Edith, widow of Edward the Confessor and sister of Harold II, accepted William's claims, giving him control of the ancient capital of the Anglo-Saxon rulers - Winchester. London remained the central point of resistance, where Edgar Ætheling, the last of the ancient Wessex dynasty, was proclaimed the new king. [12, 367] However, William's troops cordoned off London, devastating its surroundings. The leaders of the national party—Archbishop Stigand, the earls Edwin and Morcar, the young Edgar Ætheling himself—were obliged to obey. At Wallingford and Berkhamsted they took an oath of allegiance to William and confirmed him as King of England. In addition, they demanded the duke's immediate coronation. Soon Norman troops entered London. On December 25, 1066, William was crowned King of England at Westminster Abbey. [11, 193]
Although the coronation of William I took place according to Anglo-Saxon traditions, which was supposed to assure the people of the legitimacy of the rights of the newly-made king to the English throne, the power of the Normans was based at first only on military force. Already in 1067, construction began on the Tower of London. The lands of the Anglo-Saxons who participated in the battle of Hastings were seized and distributed among the soldiers of the invading army. [10, 217] By the end of March 1067, the position of William the Conqueror was somewhat established, and he managed to make a long trip to Normandy. During the absence of the king, the government of England was in the hands of the Earl of Hereford, William Fitz-Osburn, and William's half-brother, Bishop Odo.
The situation in England was quite tense. The Norman leadership exercised control only over the southeastern regions of the country. Immediately after William's departure, a wave of mutinies swept through, the largest in southwestern England. The sons of Harold Godwinson, having found refuge in Ireland, set about gathering their allies. Opponents of the new government sought to find help at the courts of the rulers of Scandinavia, Scotland and Flanders. The situation required the return of William to England. At the end of 1067, after spending the summer and autumn in Normandy, he returned to the kingdom. The South West of England was pacified. Further, the desire of the sons of Harold to land at Bristol was reflected. In the summer of 1068, William's wife Matilda was declared queen of England. [18, 131]
In 1068, the position of William the Conqueror escalated: Edgar Ætheling fled to Scotland, where he acquired the assistance of King Malcolm III, and a riot broke out in the north of England. Wilhelm acted radically. Having built a castle in Warwick, he rushed into the northern counties of England and took York unhindered. The local nobility took an oath of allegiance to the king. On the way back, castles were built at Lincoln, Nottingham, Huntingdon and Cambridge, which provided control over the route to northern England. But already at the beginning of 1069, a new rebellion arose in the north, in which not only feudal lords, but also peasants took part. On January 28, 1069, Anglo-Saxon detachments invaded Durham, who exterminated the squad of the Norman Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Comyn, and burned him alive. Further, the uprising against the conquerors spread to Yorkshire, and York itself was taken by the supporters of the Ætheling. William's second campaign to the north allowed York to be occupied and the rebellion to be crushed, ruthlessly dealing with the rebels. Until the autumn of 1069, the Normans were able to easily eliminate sources of resistance, since the rebels in different parts of England did not have common goals, unified management and did not coordinate actions with each other. [7, 201]
In the autumn of 1069 the situation changed completely. The English coast was attacked by a large fleet under the command of the sons of the Danish king Sven II Estridsen, the successor of the house of Canute the Great, who also claimed the English throne. [21, 103] At the same time , an anti- Norman uprising broke out in Maine. Taking advantage of the Danish invasion, the Anglo-Saxons again raised in Northumbria. A new army was formed, led by Edgar Ætheling, Gospatrik and Waltheof, the last representatives of the great Anglo-Saxon nobility. Linking up with the Danes, they took York, crushing his Norman division. The rebellion engulfed northern and central England. Assistance to the rebels was provided by the Archbishop of York. The possibility arose of having Edgar crowned in York, which would have aroused suspicion of William's legitimacy. [12, 377] However, the advance of the Anglo-Norman army forced the rebels to withdraw from York. The king was soon to leave the north again, faced with rebellions in western Mercia, Somerset and Dorset. Only by pacifying these speeches, William was able to take radical action against the North English rebels.
At the end of 1069, the troops of William the Conqueror re-entered northern England. The Danish army retreated to the ships and left this region. This time, the Normans began to regularly destroy the territories, the destruction of the buildings and property of the Anglo-Saxons, wanting to eliminate the very possibility of a renewal of the uprising. Villages were burned en masse, and their population fled south or to Scotland. By the summer of 1070, Yorkshire was in ruthless ruin. County Durham was greatly devastated, due to the fact that all the survivors fled from the burned villages. William's armies reached the Tees, where Kospatrick, Waltheof and the rest of the Anglo-Saxon leaders submitted to the king. [12, 311] After some time, the Normans crossed the Pennines and went to Cheshire, where the ruin continued. Then an attempt was made to eliminate what allowed the inhabitants to live. The north of England was gripped by famine and plague. By Easter 1070, the campaign that went down in history as the "Desolation of the North" (Eng. Harrying of the North) was over. The effects of this devastation were still strongly felt in Yorkshire, Cheshire, Shropshire and the Five Hills region decades after the conquest. [2, 334]
In the spring of 1070, the Danish armada, now led by King Sven himself, remained in English waters, settling on the island of Ely. The last representatives of the unconquered Anglo-Saxon nobility also came here. The poor Hereward then became the leader of the resistance. Among the participants in the uprising were not only the nobility, but also the peasants. [13, 221] Anglo-Danish units carried out raids on the coasts of East Anglia, destroying the Norman formations and ruining the property of the Normans. In the summer of 1070, William was able to sign an agreement with the Danes on their evacuation for an impressive monetary ransom. After the departure of the Danish fleet, the defense of Ili was headed by Hereward, which was joined by more and more units from other regions of the country. Thus, one of the most authoritative Anglo-Saxon aristocrats, Morcar, the former earl of Northumbria, appeared on the island of Ely. This was the last stronghold of the Anglo-Saxon resistance. In the spring of 1071, William's troops cordoned off the island and blocked its security. The defenders had to surrender. Hereward managed to escape, and Morcar was captured and soon died in prison. [15, 414]
The fall of Ely marked the end of the Norman conquest of England. Resistance to the new government is over. Only conflict situations remained on the border with Scotland, where Edgar Ætheling again found refuge. The Scottish king Malcolm III signed a truce with William in Abernethy, brought him homage and pledged not to assist the Anglo-Saxons. Edgar was forced to leave Scotland. The conquest of England was over. [11, 399]

1.2 Significance of William the Conqueror's victory in various social spheres
French borrowing English
In the social aspect, the Norman Conquest led to the elimination of the Anglo-Saxon military service nobility and the formation of a new dominant layer of feudal chivalry, built on the principles of vassal-fief relations and having judicial and administrative power over the peasant population. The semi-independent earls of the Anglo-Saxon period were replaced by the Norman barons, who were extremely dependent on the king and owed him knightly service for their property. A high clergy was also introduced into the feudal system. [21, 201] The procedure for the enslavement of the peasantry, which began back in the Anglo-Saxon time, rapidly accelerated and led to the dominance of feudal-dependent categories of the peasantry in medieval England, which served to further enslavement. At the same time, it is necessary to highlight the virtually absolute disappearance of slavery in England.
The most important consequence of the Norman conquest in the social aspect was the introduction in England of traditional feudal relations and the vassal-fief system following the French example. The emergence of feudalism in England began in the 9th-10th centuries, but the emergence of a social order based on land holding, which is determined by the implementation by the holder of strictly established duties of a military nature, whose scope depended on the contract with the overlord, is considered an absolute innovation of the Norman Conquest. The military character of the agricultural holdings was in turn one of the most important results of the Norman Conquest. In general, the social structure of society has become more strict, rigid and hierarchical.
In the organizational aspect, the Norman Conquest served as a sudden consolidation of royal power and the formation of one of the strongest and most centralized monarchies in Europe of the High Middle Ages. The strength of royal power is confirmed by the conduct of a total census of land holdings, the results of which were included in the Book of the Last Judgment, an enterprise unprecedented and completely unfeasible in other modern European states. The new state organization, although based on the Anglo-Saxon traditions of government, quickly gained a high level of specialization and the creation of multifunctional government bodies, such as the Chamber of the Chessboard, the Treasury, the Chancellery and others. [20, 389]
In the political aspect, the self-isolation of the state, which was present in the Anglo-Saxon era, was completed. England turned out to be tightly included in the system of international relations in Western Europe and began to play one of the main roles in the European political arena. William the Conqueror, who united the Kingdom of England with the Duchy of Normandy by personal union, became a powerful ruler of North-Western Europe, completely changing the balance of power in this part of the country. [16, 401]
Culturally, the Norman Conquest introduced a feudal culture of chivalry into England based on its French standards. Old English was ousted from the sphere of government, and the Norman dialect of French became the language of power and communication of the dominant social circles. For approximately 300 years, the Anglo-Norman dialect dominated the country and had a huge impact on the formation of modern English. [19, 22]

2. The influence of the Norman Conquest on the development of the English language


The penetration of French words into English began only in the 12th century. It acquired special power in the XIII-XV centuries. The Norman Conquest had a profound effect on the vocabulary of the English language. In the process of a protracted struggle with the French language, which lasted almost two and a half centuries, the English language was significantly enriched with the help of the defeated French language. This development has been slow. The expansion of the vocabulary of the language was carried out due to the invasion of words from the defeated language, as a rule, during the assimilation of one language with another, and the fact that with the advent of the Normans in England, new features of life arose, previously unfamiliar to the ancient English. [23]
The conquest of England by the Normans gave French the status of the state language, the language of the dominant minority. All state documents were written in French, it was taught in schools, and it seemed that it could become the common language of the state. However, the adamant Anglo-Saxons were unwilling to learn French, and the vast majority of the population continued to speak Old English. The English language was not curtailed with the development of writing, for this reason it changed and simplified very rapidly during the centuries of the conquest of England by the Normans.
The following situation was formed: the lower strata of the population were forced to study French words in order to understand know; and the nobility, on the contrary, had to use English words in their speech in order to talk with ordinary people. In this situation, significant sections of the English population became bilingual. This bilingualism has become the main prerequisite for the entry of a significant number of French words into the English language. [24]
For this reason, it absorbed a very large number of French words, which were mostly more polite and subtle versions of the colloquial Anglo-Saxon counterparts.
As a result of borrowing in English, pairs of synonyms were formed, among which rivalry later took place. The result of this rivalry was different in different cases. Thus, three key methods of borrowing can be identified.
In this struggle between borrowed and native words in the language, the French word often completely replaced the word of English origin. For example, the Old English word here-army was completely replaced by the word army; Old English earm - poor - French poor. [22]
Some words of French origin were forced out of English, including the most common words. Thus, the French word rivière "river" supplanted the word ēa; the French word montagne "mountain" is the word beorz. In isolated cases, this repression was facilitated by certain conditions; the word, which consisted of one sound, probably did not resist the penetration of the stronger sounding French word.
The winner, in the end, is the English word. The French word, having existed in English for a certain time, is forced out of it. For example, the word amity "friendship" was supplanted by the English friendship, having existed in the English language for a certain time.
Both words remain in the language, but at the same time there is a more or less clear separation of their meanings, in some cases exclusively semantic, in some cases more of a stylistic nature.
Sometimes a French word displaces its original English synonym into a different sphere of meaning. Thus, for example, the Old English word hærfest, which meant "autumn" , was displaced in this sense by the noun autumn from the French autumne, but remained in the English language in the form harvest in the sense of "harvest". [23]
The language has preserved memories of the times when the peasants called their animals in English, and the butchers in the city called the meat of these animals in French. For example, cow - beef, swine - pork. French words borrowed at that time meant objects and concepts related to the life and life of the Norman nobility, recreated various spheres of human activity and touched almost absolutely all aspects of material, socio-political and cultural life. Together with them, a large number of French everyday words got into the English language.
Let us briefly dwell on borrowing in various spheres of human activity. It should be noted that the number of borrowed words reflecting one or another sphere of human life was different at different stages:
1. In the XII-XV centuries, the sphere associated with the image of human feelings is considered an irrefutable favorite for borrowing, since there is an increase in interest in a person: fatiguè - tired, retenue - restrained, m i serable - unhappy, tendre - tender feelings. At this time, a large amount of vocabulary was borrowed from the sphere of military affairs: general - general; lieutenant - lieutenant; werre - war;
2. The Norman Conquest was also reflected in the vocabulary related to schooling, science and scholarship. Among the borrowed words in the XIV century, the following can be noted: lesson - lesson, library - library, pen - pen for writing, pupil - student, pencil - pencil;
3. New forms of domestic life, formed in England, also bear the imprint of French influence and are often denoted by French words: dinner - lunch, supper - dinner, table - table, plate - plate, napkin - napkin, sauser - saucer;
4. By the end of the 15th century, the number of words describing all kinds of phenomena from the field of industry grows: machine - machine, engine - motor; trade: fair - fair; market - market; money - money; political life: government - government; parliament - parliament.
In the XVIII-XX centuries. The active development of science and technology was accompanied by the emergence of tens of thousands of words denoting new concepts. Many of them are in general use. The main part of scientific technical terminology in today's English is formed from French and Latin roots: technique - technique.
Over time, French borrowings have so thoroughly grown into the English language that they themselves have changed under the influence of the phonetic habits of the English, undergoing countless sound changes that existed in the XV-XVI and subsequent centuries. [fourteen]
The most noticeable change in the sound structure of these words was the transfer of stress from the end of the word, which is characteristic of the French language up to this time, to the root syllable, that is, to the beginning of the word, which is characteristic of the English language throughout its formation. The process of stress transfer proceeded evenly, while the main stress on the last syllables was first replaced by a secondary one, and then completely disappeared.
Thus, we made sure that during the era of the Norman conquests, a very large amount of words was borrowed into the English language. They belong to different spheres of human life, have different forms.

1. 
   Types of French loanwords in English
   

There are three types of French borrowings: proper-borrowed words; tracing paper; semantic borrowings.
A borrowed word is spoken of only in those cases when both the meaning and the sound shell of the word are borrowed from a foreign language. For example, the English word "shivaree" - "cat's concert" is not considered a clear phonetic correlation of the imitated word "chaviary", but it is so close to it that the occurrence of one from the other is beyond doubt.
All existing differences in sound can be interpreted as phenomena of phonological substitution found in the bulk of borrowed words. Such words are sometimes called hybrid borrowings, since they are created partly from native, and partly from foreign material. [25]
The type of borrowing, which in English is usually called "loan translation" - in the literal sense of the word "borrowing-translation" or "tracing paper" is another step towards determining the types of borrowings. In this case, only the general structure of the compound word is transferred, including its meaning. It differs from the previous type of "tracing paper" in that all foreign morphemes are preserved, and the sound shell of the word partly changes under the influence of the borrowing language. In addition, the meaning of the word is preserved. For example, such borrowings as fruit, avenue, chair retained their own spelling, but changed their pronunciation under the influence of the English language.
Semantic borrowing is a process in which a word acquires a new meaning due to its semantic and phonetic similarity with any word in a foreign language. Such borrowing is expressed only in the appearance of a new meaning in a previously known word. Calling it semantic borrowing, we mean that it is semantic borrowing. As an example, we can cite the French word "gratte-ciel" and the English "sky-scraper".
In a borrowed word from any foreign language, where the sound envelope is transferred, there is also a phonological substitution. In mixed borrowing, instead of a part of a foreign word, a morpheme of the native language is substituted, and in addition , the meaning of the word is transferred. The morphemic structures of words, to some extent the sound shell and meaning, are transferred to tracing paper from a foreign language. Connotational borrowing transfers only the content, the meaning of a foreign language.
We would like to draw attention to the phenomenon that some classes of linguistic units are borrowed much more readily than others. In 1881, W. D. Whitney created a scale on which different language units were placed in order of their susceptibility to borrowing. It was found that nouns are more easily borrowed from all parts of speech, then verbs, and, ultimately, adjectives and adverbs. [24]
Due to the fact that a considerable number of lexical units were taken from French into English, some of which had a complex derivational structure, the influence of the French language was largely reflected in the concept of English word formation. Some of the English suffixes and prefixes seen in loanwords may have been extracted from those words and applied to form words from their original roots.
For example, a huge number of French words were formed with the suffix -ance, -ence: ignorance, entrance, innocence. From here, the meaning of this suffix became clear to the English, with the help of which abstract nouns are formed from the stems of adjectives and verbs.
The suffix -ess, used to create nouns denoting the fairer sex, has been introduced into the English language in the words: princess, baroness. Subsequently, they began to attach it to English roots: goddess, murderess.
The French suffix -able, -ible, which forms adjectives with the meaning "able to undergo the action denoted by the verb", entered the English language in the words: admirable, tolerable, flexible.
Some French prefixes have also become fruitful in English. So, for example, the prefix -dis-, -des- with a negative meaning, entered the English language as part of many French words (disappoint, disdain) and began to be used to create new words from English roots: disown, disburden.
The problem of the degree of influence of borrowings on the language has been discussed and discussed many times. From the foregoing, it follows that the result of borrowing is a tangible enrichment of the vocabulary of the language. However, the powerful and prolonged influence of one language on another can cause such an influx of foreign vocabulary that the entire image of the borrowing language will undergo significant changes. Such was the influence exerted on English by the French of the Norman conquerors. The language is able to absorb such a huge number of foreign words belonging to structural types that these structural types will also be included in the borrowing language. [fourteen]
Semantic classification provides us with the opportunity not only to divide all borrowings into subject groups and subgroups, but also to study the transition of words from one subject group to another under the influence of the French language. The influence of the French language on English is observed not only in the varieties of borrowings, but also in the deepest semasiological processes. Thus, for example, the word "family", in accordance with the Oxford Dictionary, has been used since the 17th century in the meaning that it has in French, namely: "clan", "family", "family". Until that time, the word "family" meant in English the concept of "servants", "households".
Considering French borrowings from the point of view of assimilation provides us with the opportunity to make sure that the English language did not accept the borrowed words indifferently. It regularly took place the process of selecting words that had penetrated from the French language. The English language fully assimilated only those words that turned out to be necessary and useful, displacing those that did not contribute to the enrichment of the language. [25]
When analyzing the problem of the degree of assimilation of borrowed words, we should focus on the presence or absence of obvious signs of belonging to the French language. From this point of view, French borrowings can be conditionally divided into assimilated and unassimilated borrowings. Assimilated borrowings, having experienced semantic and morphological modifications, partially changed their sound image and spelling. For example, English. defend fr. defendre (defend) difficult difficile (difficult, difficult).
Unassimilated borrowings include borrowings that originally have French phonetic and morphological distinctive features: coup d'Etat (coup d'état), pince-nez (pince-nez), (in) petit point (on tiptoe).
The latter are distinguished not only by the features of the expressed definitions, but also by the frequency and area of their use, configuration and sound appearance. Nevertheless, the boundaries between the groups of learned and not learned words are conditional, as a result of which a number of words stand on the border of the transition from one group to another. We highlight not only the preservation of spelling, but also the change in pronunciation: fiance, avenue, restaurant, chiffonier, champagne. These borrowings can be classified as learned, since they changed their phonetic features, and unlearned, due to the fact that they left their spelling.
Returning to the question of animals and their meat, the following can be noted: on their farms, the peasantry called animals swine, sheep, and cow, and if they brought meat to the market, the nobility called it pork, mutton and beef. In addition to this, a large number of words were borrowed from everyday life.
As mentioned earlier, the French language was at the state level, therefore, words in the spheres of the nobility, church, country, troops came into everyday life. To this words include : marquess, baroness , count, army, marine, navy, sergeant, soldier, chancellor, defendent, evidence, government, courage, devout, dignity and many others .
There are several suffixes that indicate the French origin of the word. Among them are -our, -ous, -ment, -ance, -ence, -age, -ess. [23]
It should be noted that approximately 75-80% of borrowed words in English come from various languages, including French, Latin, Spanish, Italian, Arabic, German, Scandinavian languages, and even Russian. For example, lat. pipere - pepper; Russian beluga , sterlet , rouble , pood , czar , pirozhki ; Scandinavian. shamrock , shillelagh , spalpen ; ital. marinade , caramel , flotilla , cigar , picturesque ; Arabic caliph , mameluke , shekh , hashish , nadir ; German spits, poodle. This confirms the close relationship of the English people with speakers of other cultures and languages.


2.2 Influence of the Norman Conquest on the development of English writing


Since the formation and correspondence of documents ended up in the hands of Norman scribes, when copying English texts, they introduced into the graphics the designations of a number of sounds familiar to them. Innovations can be divided into three main categories:
1) designations for phonemes that did not exist in French;
2) designations for phonemes similar to French, but not having special ways of designation in English;
3) designations for phonemes similar to French and denoted in it differently than in English.
For the phoneme /th - dh/, which did not exist in French, scribes used an infrequent spelling in Old English with the digraph th: thick, that. For the hard phoneme /x/, similar to the Russian /х/ in I want, and for the palatalized phoneme /x'/ — as flimsy in Russian — the spelling gh was used: thought, night. [22]
For sibilant phonemes that did not have a special designation in English, French designations began to be used:

• 
  letter combinations sh, sch - for /sh/: ship, waschen
  
• 
  letter combinations ch, tch - for /h/: child, fetch
  
• 
  letter combinations dg, j - for /j/: bridge, John.
  

The letter c in Old English meant /k/; in French it meant /k/ only before back vowels. In accordance with the skills introduced by the scribes, the letter c has come to mean the sound /k/ before the back vowels: cat, comb , cold, but before the front vowels it means /s/: city, cell. In English words that included /k/ before a front vowel, the letter k was fixed: king, Kent. It is worth noting that the letter combinations ci and ce at the beginning of a word are still only found in words of Romance origin: in English, as a rule, the letter combinations si and se are used: sit, settle. These combinations are also found in Romance words: sentiment, sign, servant , serf .

Conclusion _


So, in the course of our research, we studied the influence of the Norman Conquest on the English language. After the study, the following goals were achieved and certain conclusions were drawn. After conducting a historical analysis of the interaction of languages, we came to the conclusion that the widespread influence of languages on each other began some time after the Norman Conquest, when Norman domination was established in England. Further borrowing of words was carried out due to the emergence of new concepts, household items, the development of areas where France dominated. This means that social and cultural backgrounds played one of the main roles in the borrowing of vocabulary by the language. We have considered the ways and forms of French borrowings in English, the so-called borrowed words, tracing papers and semantic borrowings, as well as borrowings of word-forming elements. Speaking about the adaptation of borrowings, there are several types of adaptations: 1) the meaning, structure, and phonetics of the word are completely preserved, 2) the sound composition of the word changes, i.e. phonetic adaptation, 3) morphemes change, the structure of the word (morphological adaptation), 4) the transfer of meaning, one of the meanings of the word (semantic adaptation).
In conclusion, we add that now, having reliably convinced how similar English and French languages are, this can significantly facilitate their study. In these two languages, at first glance, you can notice similar, and sometimes the same words, which actually belong to one of the types of borrowings.
The results of our work will help to better memorize French/English vocabulary and new words by comparing with English/French words and studying the origin of words.

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