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particularly striking image of this style.
See also:
Indonesia
Further reading:
H.M.Ambary,
Historical Monuments: Cerbon,
Jakarta
1982.
—— ‘Laporan penelitian kepurbakalaan di Pajang (Jawa
Tengah)’,
Archipel
1983, 75–84.
T.E.Behrend, ‘Kraton, taman and mesjid: a brief survey
and bibliographic review of Islamic antiquities in
Java’,
Indonesia Circle
35: 29–55, Nov. 1984.
L.F.Brakel and H.Massarik, ‘A note on the Panjuan
Mosque in Cirebon’,
Archipel
23: 119–34, 1982.
K.P.H.Brongtodiningrat,
Arti Kraton Yogyakarta
(trans.
R.Murdani), Yogyakarta 1978.
H.D.de Graaf, ‘The origin of the Javanese mosque’,
Journal of Southeast Asian History
4(i): 1–5, 1963.
D.Lombard, ‘Jardins à Java’,
Arts Asiatiques
20: 135–83,
1969.
—— ‘A travers le vieux Djakarta: I.La Mosquée des
Balinais’,
Archipel
3: 97–101, 1972.
T.G.T.Pigeaud,
Java in the 14th Century: A Study in
Cultural History. The Nagra-Kertagama by Rakawi
Prapanca of Majapahit 1365
(3 edn.), 5 vols., The Hague
1960–3.
G.F.Pijper, The minaret in Java’, in
India Antiqua: A
Volume of Studies Presented to J.P.Vogel,
Leiden 1947,
274–83.
M.C.Ricklefs,
Jogyakarta under Sultan Mangkubumi, 1749–
1792: A History of Division in Java
(London Oriental
Series 30), London 1974.
U.Tjandrasasmita,
Islamic Antiquities of Sendag Duwur,
Jakarta 1975.
—— ‘The introduction of Islam and the growth of
Moslem coastal cities in the Indonesian Archipelago’,
in
Dynamics of Indonesian History,
ed. H.Soebadio and
M.Sarvas, Amsterdam 1978.
Jerusalem (al Quds)
Major religious city in Palestine sacred to Muslims, Jews
and Christians.
Within the Muslim faith Jerusalem is regarded as the
third holiest shrine and the second most important
place of pilgrimage after Mecca. Muslims know
Jerusalem as the city of the prophets and the place
of Muhammad’s night journey. The importance of
the site to the Jews is that it was the site of the Temple
built by Solomon in the 10th century BCE, whilst
the Christians know it as the place where Christ was
crucified and resurrected.
The first walled town on the site dates from the
Middle Bronze Age (1800 BCE). The earliest literary
reference is also from the same period when the
city is mentioned as one of the enemies of Egypt.
The next mention of the city is from the Amarna
letters in the fourteenth century BCE. The main
source for the subsequent history of the city is the
Bible which describes its capture from the Jebusites
under David, and the building of the Temple under
Solomon.
In 70 CE the Romans destroyed the city in
response to the Jewish Revolt. The site lay uninhab-
ited for the next seventy-five years until the
emperor Hadrian founded a new city known as
Aelia Capitolina. Jews were specifically excluded
from this new city and the area of the Temple was
left undeveloped (and remained so until the Arab
conquest). The layout of the present Old City of
Jerusalem is approximately the same as that of the
Roman town. In 324 Palestine became part of the
Christian Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium)
under Constantine who founded the Church of the
Holy Sepulchre in 325–6 CE. Constantine’s mother
took an active part in promoting the building of
Christian places of worship during this period. A
depiction of the city in the Madaba Mosaic Map
shows it in the sixth century before the Muslim
conquest. From 614 to 629 the city was in the
possession of the Sassanians under Chosroes II who
destroyed many Christian buildings. In 629 the city
was recaptured by the Byzantines under Heraclius
only to be conquered by the Muslim Arab armies
ten years later. For the following 1,200 years (with
the exception of the Crusader occupation)
Jerusalem developed as major Islamic city although
it never developed into a great commercial or
administrative centre.
The main building material used for Jerusalem
was stone, as wood has always been fairly scarce.
The main types of stone available were limestone
and Dolomite. Four types of limestone can be found
in the Jerusalem region, of which two were used for
building in the Islamic period, (i) Mizzi, is a hard
fine-grained stone sometimes known as ‘Palestinan
Marble’. This occurs in two varieties, a reddish type
known as mizzi ahmar from near Bethlehem and a
yellowish variety from Dayr Yasin 5 km east of the
135
Jerusalem (al Quds)
city, (ii) Malaki which is less hard than mizzi but is
still hard and fine grained. Outcrops were quarried
to the north of the city at Solomon’s Quarries and in
the Kidron valley.
The development of Islamic Jerusalem can be
divided into four main periods: (i) the early Islamic
period from the Arab conquest to the first Crusade,
(ii) the Crusader period, (iii) the Ayyubid and
Mamluk periods and (iv) the Ottoman period.
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