10.46
First-Order
RL
Circuits
Then, we get the zero-state response for the two exponential inputs separately and use superposition
principle to arrive at the solution for sinusoidal input.
∴
=
+
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
i t
j R
j L
e
e
R
j L
e
e
j t
t
j t
t
L
)
) for
( )
(
(
/
/
1
2
1
1
w
w
w
t
w
t
t
j
R
j L
R
j L
e
e
R
j L
e
R
j L
t
j t
j t
≥
=
+
+
−
+
+
−
−
+
−
−
0
1
2
1
1
w
w
w
w
t
w
w
/
≥
=
−
(
)
+
+
( )
+
−
for
for
t
R
t
L
t
L e
R
L
t
0
2
2
sin
cos
/
w
w
w
w
w
t
for
L
t
i t
t
t
e
R
L
t
≥
∴
=
−
(
)
+
+
( )
+
−
0
2
2
( )
sin
cos
cos
sin
sin .
/
w
f
w
f
f
w
t
tt
R
L
t
e
t
t
≥
=
+
( )
− +
(
)
≥
+
−
+
0
1
0
2
2
w
w
f
f
t
sin(
) sin .
/
for
(10.8-9)
The angle
f
in Eqn. 10.8-9 is defined the same way as in Eqn. 10.8-8. Both methods lead to same
expression for the final response, as they should. The final expression may be recast in the following
form where
k
=
wt
and the current and time are normalised with respect to 1
/R and
t
, respectively.
i t
k
k t
k
k
k
e t
k
n
n
Ln
( )
sin(
tan
)
;
=
+
−
+
+
=
−
−
1
1
1
2
1
2
wt
(10.8-10)
This waveform for a case with
k
=
4 is shown in Fig. 10.8-2. The number
k can be interpreted as a
comparison between the characteristic time,
i.e., the period of the applied voltage and the characteristic
time of the circuit,
i.e., its time constant.
k can be expressed as 2
p
(
t
/
T) where
T is the period of input.
Sinusoids undergo a full cycle of variation in one
T and hence the value of
T is indicative of the rate
of change involved in the waveform,
i.e., the
speed of the waveform. Time constant is a measure of
inertia in the system. Therefore, an input sinusoid is too fast for a circuit to follow if its
T is smaller
than the time constant
t
of the circuit. Similarly, if input sinusoid has a
T value much larger than time
constant of the circuit, the circuit will perceive it as a very slow waveform and will respond almost the
same way it does to DC input. These aspects are clearly brought out in Eqn. 10.8-10.
1
t
/
τ
t
/
τ
0.5
–0.5
1
1
2
3
4
2
Applied
voltage Circuit current
Forced response part
Total current
Transient part
(a)
(b)
3
4
–1
–0.3
–0.2
–0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
Fig. 10.8-2
Unit sinusoidal response of
RL
circuit with
k
=
4
Series
RL
Circuit with Exponential Inputs
10.47
The amplitude of forced response component, or equivalently, the amplitude of sinusoidal steady-
state response, is a strong function of
k. The amplitude decreases with increasing
w
or increasing
t
.
In
addition, the steady-state current lags the applied voltage by a phase angle that increases with
wt
.
Let us imagine that we conduct an experiment. We apply a sinusoidal voltage of 1V amplitude to
a series
RL circuit and wait for enough time for the transient response to die down. After steady state
is satisfactorily established in the circuit, we measure the amplitude of
current and its phase with
respect to the input sine wave. We repeat this process for various values of frequency of input, keeping
its amplitude at 1V always. We ensure that the circuit is in steady-state before we measure the output
every time.
The data so obtained can be plotted to show the variation of ratio of output amplitude to input
amplitude and phase of steady-state current against
k (
=
wt
). Such a pair of plots will constitute what
is called the
AC steady-state frequency response plots for this
RL circuit. The ratio of output amplitude
to input amplitude is called
gain of the circuit. Its dimension will depend on the nature of input and
output quantities. If we define a complex function
of
w
with the magnitude of function equal to the
gain described here and angle of the function equal
to the phase angle by which the steady-state output
leads the sinusoidal input,
the resulting function
will be what we termed the
frequency response
function H(
j
w
) we described in Chapter 9.
Such an experiment
can be performed on any
circuit to get its frequency response data. However,
if the differential equation of the circuit is known we
need not do the experiment. The frequency response
plots can be obtained analytically in that case. The
frequency response of the series
RL circuit is shown
in Fig. 10.8-3 as an example.
We make the following observations on the
sinusoidal steady-state response of series
RL circuit
from Eqn. 10.8-10 and Fig. 10.8-3.
• The circuit current under sinusoidal steady-state response is a sinusoid at the same angular
frequency
w
rad/s as that of input sinusoid.
• The circuit current initially is a mixture of an exponentially decaying
unidirectional transient
component along with the steady-state sinusoidal component. This unidirectional transient imparts
an offset to the circuit current during the initial period.
• The circuit current at its first peak can go close to twice its steady-state amplitude in the case of
circuits with
wt
>> 1 due to this offset.
• The amplitude of sinusoidal steady-state response is always less than corresponding amplitude
when DC input of same amplitude is applied. This is due to the inductive inertia of the circuit. The
amplitude depends on the product
wt
and decreases monotonically with the
wt
product for fixed
input amplitude.
• The response sinusoid
lags behind the input sinusoid under steady-state conditions by a phase
angle that increases monotonically with the product
wt
.
• The frequency at which the circuit gain becomes 1/
√
2 times that of DC gain is termed as
cut-off
frequency and since this takes place as we go up in frequency it is called
upper cut-off frequency.
Fig. 10.8-3
Frequency
response plots
for series
RL
circuit
–1.5
–1
Phase
(rad)
Gain
–0.5
1
2
3
4 5 k
0.5
0.707
1
(–45°)
4
π
2
π
√
2
1
10.48
First-Order
RL
Circuits
Upper cut-off frequency of series
RL circuit is seen to be at
w
=
1/
t
rad/s. The phase delay at this
frequency will be – 45
°
.
• Circuit current amplitude becomes very small at high frequencies (
wt
>> 1) and the current lags
the input voltage by
≈
90
°
at such frequencies.
We assumed that the applied voltage is
v
S
(
t)
=
sin
w
t u(
t) throughout this analysis. This
means
that the sinusoidal voltage happened to be crossing the time-axis exactly at the instant at which we
closed the switch to apply it to the circuit. Though technically it is possible to do such switching (it is
done in some applications that way), that is not the way it takes place in many practical applications.
The sinusoid may be at any value between its maximum and minimum when we throw the switch.
Therefore, we must analyse the response with
v
S
(
t)
=
sin (
w
t
+
q
)
u(
t) for an arbitrary
q
.
The function sin (
w
t
+
q
) is the imaginary part of
e
j(
w
t
+
q
)
=
cos (
w
t
+
q
)
+
j sin (
w
t
+
q
). The zero-
state response when
e
st
is applied to the circuit is given by Eqn. 10.8-4. So, shall we substitute
s
=
j
(
w
+
q
) in Eqn. 10.8-4 to get the required output? No, that will be wrong since it is only
w
that gets
multiplied by
t, not
q
. We should (i) interpret
e
j(
w
t
+
q
)
as
e
j
q
e
j
w
t
, (ii) solve for the zero-state response
for
e
j
w
t
, (iii) multiply the response by
e
j
q
(we apply principle of homogeneity there) and (iv) take the
imaginary part. We skip all that basic algebra and give the result below.
i t
R
L
t
e
t
t
L
for
( )
sin(
) sin(
).
/
=
+
( )
+ − +
−
(
)
≥
−
+
1
0
2
2
w
w
q f
f q
t
(10.8-11)
By
substituting
q
=
90
°
, we get the solution for
v
S
(
t)
=
cos
w
t u(
t) as
i t
R
L
t
e
t
t
L
for
( )
cos(
) cos .
/
=
+
( )
− −
(
)
≥
−
+
1
0
2
2
w
w
f
f
t
(10.8-12)
Eqn. 10.8-11 indicates that it is possible to switch on an AC voltage to an initially relaxed series
RL
circuit in such a way that there is no transient response and circuit immediately goes to steady state –
the switching instant must be such that
q
=
f
. This principle is used sometimes in switching of heavily
inductive power equipment. In such cases, the angle
f
is close to 90
°
and transient-free switching is
possible if the voltage is switched on to the equipment at positive or negative peak.
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