2.3.1 Chemical and phase composition of copper slags
The bulk chemical composition of Cu-slags varies from one smelting site to another (Table
1), depending on the type of smelted ores, fluxes and additives applied during the
pyrometallurgical process (Gbor et al., 2000; Lottermoser, 2002; 2005; Harish et al., 2011;
Mateus et al., 2011). Copper slags are mainly composed of SiO
2
with concentrations up to 70
wt.% (Sāez et al., 2003; Kierczak & Pietranik, 2011; Kierczak et al., 2013; Rozendaal &
Horn, 2013; Piatak et al., 2015)
and Fe
2
O
3
up to 64 wt.% (Ettler et al., 2009). They are
characterized by minor quantities of compounds such as Al
2
O
3
and CaO. Other compounds
such as MgO, K
2
O and S occur in much lower quantities. Additionally, they are often
enriched in metallic elements such as copper, lead and zinc, reaching concentrations up to
28%, 18%, and 12%, respectively (Sāez et al., 2003; Ettler et al., 2009; Vítková et al., 2010).
Other metals such as arsenic, chromium and nickel can also be present, but in much lower
quantities, usually not exceeding 0.1%. Enrichment of metals in metallurgical slags reflects
the inefficiency of the metallurgical process.
Variation in slag chemical composition is mainly related to the conditions of the technological
process. A different silica content refers to the concentration of this compound in a primitive
ore as well as the quantity of the silica flux that was added during the smelting process.
Concentration of alkali compounds may also vary, reflecting its content in gangue minerals of
ore (Manasse et al., 2001; Manasse & Mellini, 2002). The carbon and sulfur content may also
differ. These compounds are often removed by high temperature roasting. It aims to eliminate
these compounds through the conversion to CO
2
and SO
2
, respectively. However, if this
processing stage is inefficient, then a high sulfur (Manasse et al., 2001; Manasse & Mellini,
2002; Piatak & Seal, 2010) and carbon content may be observed in the chemical composition
of the slag material. The content of metals includes a wide range of concentrations with
respect to more or less efficient metallurgical processes.
Comparing the bulk metal content in slags resulting from different time periods of copper
production (Table 2.1), surprisingly some ancient slags (e.g. São Domingos, Portugal) contain
a lower content of metallic elements compared to those resulting from contemporary
processing. As Roman wastes have been disposed over a long period of time, it is possible
that metal concentrations were initially higher, while weathering processes leached
contaminants out into the environment. Such a scenario has been proposed by Alvarez-Valero
et al. (2009) who compared historical and modern slags from ore processing of the same
origin.
CHAPTER 2: COPPER METALLURGICLA SLAGS- CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND FATE:
A REVIEW
18
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