Conference Myths in south-eastern European textbooks 22-24 October 2014, Tirana Myths in south-eastern European textbooks

The Myth of Ethnic Purity
The mythic idea about autochthony and ethnic continuity is accompanied even by the vision of ethnic purity which seems to be embedded during all periods. This myth constitutes an attempt to prove biological and cultural purity of Albanian ethnos which lies its basis on the belittlement of contacts between Albanians and their neighbors. This attempt is best exemplified in the following passage: “Illyrians throughout centuries preserved their own language, culture and traditions of their forebears, handling down generations after generations...Arbërs are the descendants of Illyrians. They preserved their language, customs and culture of their ancestors - Illyrians...In the areas where modern Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and Bosnia, the ancient Arbëror-Shqiptar populace dwindled away gradually by the new Slavic dwellers. Whilst in the territory of modern Albania, Kosova, large chunks of Macedonia, Montenegro and Greece, the ancient Albanians did not extinguish. This population preserved its language, customs and ancient culture which were carried by Albanians.²⁸ Illyrians were not Romanized although they were under their rule. They could preserve their language, culture, traditions and their customs...Illyrians were on the edge of assimilation by the Romans and barbarian invasions...However, Illyrians, and later Albanians, were capable of preserving their own, although a good deal of their lands was engulfed by Slavic settlers...the main factors which enabled the survival of Albanian substance were language, culture, traditions and customs”.²⁹

The complexity of medieval history of Albanians is left on oblivion in a way to push forward the myth about ethnic purity. The authors of these textbooks ignore all relations with outside world and thus they explain the transitions from Illyrians to Albanians as natural transformations within that ethnic entity, without being in touch by any outside circumstance. By emphasizing repeatedly the preservation of language, traditions and culture, they preclude every possibility of ethnic evolution, which is rather considered as a solid entity running through centuries and being untainted for most of time.³⁰ These authors admit only two extremities: the first one comprises the hypothesis according to which Albanians-Shqiptarët of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Serbia were utterly obliterated by the invading Slavs; whilst the other one points to the hypothesis according to which Albanians in the territories of modern Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro and Greece as well, escaped from assimilation by keeping intact their own identity. Then again, these authors abuse with the term ‘Arbër’, which is projected back in the past in all areas where once used to live Illyrians. Moreover, they preclude every possibility of mingling or ethnic symbiosis in Balkans.³¹ Another major flaw is using modern political terms to construe the history of Middle Ages.

Religious Harmony
A common myth is that according to which is envisaged a religious harmony. Behind these myths emerges the idea that religious diversity among modern Albanians is a given fact. Thus all religions are depoliticized in a way to create the impression that Albanians never identified themselves on religious basis, but only on ethnic one. This myth bifurcates on two branches: the myth about religious tolerance and the one about religious indifference.

The Myth About Religious Tolerance
The myth about religious tolerance constitutes one of the most important myths upon which relies the identity given on history textbooks. Beneath of this myth is the deliberate attempt to subordinate the religious diversity under the nation. The following excerpts are cases in point: “Although Albanians have three religions, they were always unified into a single body, maintaining a religious tolerance with one another. Albanians are reckoned as the only people who never had any religious war.³² Though divided in three different religions, the Albanian nation is known for its religious tolerance. The language, traditions and customs were the main elements which bounded Albanians...With the spread of Islam, at the end of 17^th century, the national names - Shqiptar and Shqipëri came to the fore. These names were used in all areas where Albanian was spoken in spite of religious differences.”³³

All chapters which dwell on this subject, point to the same direction: the religious tolerance. These textbooks give a great deal of emphasis on the pragmatic behaviors of Albanians regarding the religions, who always considered their national elements as the most important.³⁴ This myth contains a very ambiguous term: religious tolerance. This term does not go well along with the peaceful symbiosis among Albanians. A tolerance perse presupposes a discrepancy, disagreement or conflict which is neutralized by the tolerance. The multi-religious symbiosis among Albanians was not a consequence of tolerance, but of a wide inter-religious consensus, best exemplified by the mixed marriages and the so-called kripto-Christians.³⁵

Being so, the students are compelled to choose in their homework books between the following options: “1) (Albanians) had religious tolerance, 2) (Albanians) had not religious tolerance; or 1) they had religious wars; 2) there were no religious war; 3) they had only a religious war.”³⁶ Other similar questions are posed in this way: “b) describe some factors which paved the way to the spread of Islam among Albanians; c) what is the religion of Albanians.”³⁷
The Myth About Religious Pragmatism
The myth about religious tolerance would be less convincing if it had not been accompanied by myth about religious indifference. On the heart of such myth lies the idea that no religion made any strong holding into Albanian beliefs and that religion did not matter at all on the identity of Albanians. This myth is built upon a poetic verse written by Pashko Vasa in his famous poem “Oh my Albania”. His attempts to conceive an identity are described in this way: “To achieve the much yearned unification, they chanted a verse taken by Pashko Vasa ‘The religion of Albanians is Albanism’, which did not challenge religious beliefs, but religious divisions among Albanians.”³⁸ This poetic verse put forth the idea that Albanians were strongly bounded by ethnicity, and not the religions.³⁹

The religious diversity is rather seen as a direct result of pragmatism and the struggle for survival.⁴⁰ Unlike religious tolerance, the religious indifference is never dissected in its entirety. These texts do not explicitly say that Albanians were indifferent towards religion. But they infer this by pointing too often the very fact that Albanians made a compromise towards religion to attain political or economical benefits. Hence these texts contain ample facts which imply the religious fluidity of Albanians.⁴¹ Many chapters are dedicated to the spread of Islam,⁴² whereas there are only few superficial explanations to the spread of Orthodoxism and Catholicism among Albanians.⁴³ Its worth of pointing that these writers do not specify the very fact that in addition to the three above-mentioned religions, Albanians embraced certain religious heresies as like bogomilism;⁴⁴ some of them are still practiced. No mention is made for the community of Protestants⁴⁵ and that of Bektashis.⁴⁶

Albano-centrism as Nationalism
Most of myths which appear on these textbooks are modernized versions of previous myths which have been prompted by 19^th century nationalism. The pioneers of Albanan nationalism of 19^th century, like Jeronim De Rada, upheld the hypothesis about the Pelasgian origin of Albanians and supported German scholars who adhered the view according to which Albanians were of Illyrian stock. The Illyrian theory has been used to the degree of mythization by the communist regime of Enver Hoxha (1944-1985).⁴⁷ One of the most noteworthy Albanian nationalist, Pashko Vasa through his famous line “The religion of Albanians is Albanism”, articulated the myth of religious tolerance as an effective tool to tone down religious divisions that plagued Albanian society at his time. Even the regime of Ahmet Zogu was fond of exploiting this myth on his sterling attempts to consolidate Albania's statehood. Accordingly, there was a reuse of such slogan especially after the collapse of Communism because there was some fear that Albanians might return to their religions considering that Albanian communists put a ban on religions (1967).⁴⁸ The history as given on these textbooks does not meddle only with Albanians of Kosovo, but of Albanians in general.⁴⁹ Being so, there is no room left to those who claim for a ‘Kosovar nation’. To sum it up, the idea of Albano-centrism imposes a perspective to see things from an Albanian angle.
The Incoherence of the Nation
While nationalist themes are abundantly popular on these textbooks, there is not a single paragraph to delve the process how the nation was coalesced. The Albanian nation is considered as a given fact. This nation is projected not in a certain framework, but it appears during all historical periods. This can be noticed at the confusing usage of ethnonyms Ilir-Arbër-Shqiptar which are erroneously lumped together.

When the kingdoms established by the Illlyrian tribes of Encheleans, Taulanti, Molossians, Ardieai or Dardani are tackled, they are considered as successive entities which followed one another.⁵⁰ This warped view is consistent to the idea of Albanian writers who are covetous to see Illyrians as a single ethnic entity. They ignore the very fact that the term ‘Illyrian’ most likely was never used by Illyrians to denote themselves; indeed this term was probably an exonym used by either Greek or Romans to lump together a mixture of tribes who used to live from Danube all the way of the Gulf of Ambracia. A chapter dedicated to Balsha II has the following: “His intention was to unite all Albanian lands into a single state....yet he could not fulfil his aspiration. The council of Lezha created the ground to establish an Albanian state”.⁵¹ The writers mention nationalist ideas in a time when no nation has been shaped.⁵² In general, they call every political entity as ‘state’ with a nationalist background:”Kara Mahmut Pasha reckoned himself as a descendant of Scanderbeg and aspired to detach from Ottoman Empire...Ali Pashë Tepelena struggled...to materialize his idea for an independent Albanian state.”⁵³ While there is no doubt that these Albanian rulers during Ottoman period were well-aware of French Revolution, it is redundant to call their attempts as deliberate nationalist acts. This very idea can be found in all textbooks, implying that Albanians had a proto-nationalist consciousness.⁵⁴

The Myth About National Renaissance
The period of nation-building is known by Albanian historiography as the period of National Renaissance. Given that Albanian nation is considered as timeless entity, the writers of history textbooks do not delve the nature of nation. One is tempted to know which new phenomenon took place during 19^th century? As Anthony Smith puts it, the myth about National Renaissance is narrowly linked with “the golden age of nation”.⁵⁵ What about the Albanian nation then? According to 19^th century nationalists, the times of Scanderbeg were perceived as the bright period of the nation. History textbooks in Kosovo give the following definition on the formation of Albanian nation: “Renaissance was a political movement with nationalist overtones, whose main purpose was to liberate and unite into a single independent state and the development of both national education and culture⁵⁶...the liberation of all Albanian lands from Ottoman yoke and their unification into a single national state.”⁵⁷

The formation of Albanian nation is described in the same manner as nationalist Albanians of 19^th century did. The Albanian Renaissance is considered as a unique movement with a clear political platform: liberation, cultural rise and the establishment of an independent state. There is no explanation to the ever-growing antagonism between pro-Ottomanist elements and those who advocated either for autonomy or full independence.⁵⁸ There is a selection of historical events, where anti-Ottoman revolts got the main attention, yet there is no passage about the participation of Albanians on Russian-Ottoman wars on Crimean War, there is a large amount of references on Pashko Vasa, Sami Frasheri, Naim Frasheri, Hasan Tahsini, Ismail Qemali, but there is not a single explanation that all of them were well-integrated on Ottoman system.⁵⁹ Moreover, there is a large amount of information about cultural developments among intellectual circles, yet there is no information which would shed light upon the cultural level and the identity of other layers of society.⁶⁰

Victimization and innocence
The history as narrated on history text-books in Kosovo, is a purified version of history. Its authors carried out a deliberate purification which sought to swept away all eventual ‘sins’, attempting to pass it off as a mere history of consequences, rather than a history of causes. In order to bolster this kind of purification, these authors conceived a focal point around which is centered the narration of history: Albano-centrism. In so doing, they selected either events or historical sources with the primary intention to conceive an image of innocent people who has been the victim of other peoples.
The Myth of Continuity Resistance
The idea of an innocent people during all of the history, is being harbored on the myth about continuity and unbroken resistance. This myth had that Albanians were always outraged or assaulted by other people, while they were always on defensive positions, resisting others onslaughts. This myth is being narrated as the following passage illustrates: “Illyrians were never subjugated under Roman rule, they fought all the time for their freedom. Although their uprisings were crushed with much of violence and cruelty, Illyrians rose up continuously against foreign rulers.⁶¹ Albanians waged a continuous war to liberate themselves from Ottoman yoke...Albanians never ceased their resistance against Ottoman invaders...She (Elena Gjika – D.A) through folk songs, pointed out the war of Albanians against Ottoman rule...The establishment of an Independent Albania...was a direct result of the continuous uprisings against Ottomans...In all cities of Albania....Italian invaders were faced with the resistance of Albanians.⁶² They never agreed with Ottoman yoke. The resistance of Albanians got larger proportions each time...The resistance of Arbërs never ceased.⁶³ The insurgents fought against oppression as well as economic exploit...The unceasing uprising of Albanians as well as Italian war weakened considerably the Ottoman Empire.”⁶⁴

These authors eschew from modern terms like “Pax romana” or “Pax Ottomanica”, and thus they pass in silence the very fact that Illyrians were well-integrated within Roman political and military framework or within Ottoman Empire’s structures. They never make a mention to the economic prosperity which took place during the Ottoman period;⁶⁵ the intertwining identities of Ottomans and Albanians are ignored likewise. They lay much stress on the slight resistance of Albanian forces against Fascist invasion on 1939, whom they portray as having larger proportions. To sum it up, the myth of a continuity resistance of Albanians is a mere byproduct of “historic victimization syndrome”⁶⁶, which make Albanians feel less worried of their own history, and especially the lost chances during the past.

The Myth of Innocence
A nation that has been a victim, is an innocent nation! But what does make it innocent? This myth takes pain to portray Albanians as a victim on the hand of others and that Albanians did no harm to others. This myth is preceded in a way that many events are simply refrained in order to not provoke students. When Second World War is tackled, the history textbook dedicated for the 9^th grade, has the following passage: ”Albanians who were ill treated during Monarchy of Yugoslavia, were fairly cautious towards their Serbian neighbors...After unification of a part of Kosovo with Albania, the Albanian majority was quite tolerant to Serbian and Montenegrin minorities, there were many instances when Albanians offered their help to Serbs.”⁶⁷ Indeed the truth runs much deeper than this statement. According to impartial observations conducted by foreign scholars, it was a number of Serbs who were driven from their homes because they felt insecure by any possible revenge of Albanians. Yet most of the expelled Serbs were largely colons that came to settle in Kosovo fertile plains in the meantime between two World Wars. The myth which envisages a vision of innocence is a deliberate attempt to justify the deeds of certain Albanians who provided help to actions which are conceived as wrong by modern standards.⁶⁸

Thus when authors dwell on the problem of collaboration between some Albanians with Nazi authorities, they are hell-bent on justifying their motives: “When the German authority was established, a group of nationalists attempted to preserve national unification which was achieved earlier, by delivering support to Germans. On these circumstances, in 16-20 September was held on Prizren the Second League of Prizren...Nazi German gave support to the Second League of Prizren for their goals, while in other hand, the League members tried to exploit German’s presence to achieve their goals.”⁶⁹ In this way, these authors attempt to justify the collaboration with Nazis by portraying the Second League of Prizren as a kind of pragmatic movement. In a similar manner, there is not a single mention of quisling government of Tirana⁷⁰ and SS Skanderbeg Division. Although this armed force’s role was insignificant, these authors pass over into silence the history when Jews were rescued voluntarily by Albanians during World War II.

The Relation With West
Most of textbooks which are in wide use in Kosovo, embarks on the myth about the intristinct connection of Albanians with West. These authors do not give attention to the relations of Albanians with Eastern World, instead they surface only the connection with Western civilization. This myth demonstrates that history is used to attain some modern objectives by altering the historical truth. They are pursuing the same path as political elites who are eager to belittle eastern elements. This myth is ostensibly affected by the intense debates among Albanian intellectual milleu on the nature of Albanian identity.⁷¹ Most of these textbooks are fraught with passages which bespeak for the European identity of Albanians. At the same time, they neglect or ignore eastern elements of Albanian culture in order to bolster Albanian identity in the line with that of Europe. The dilemma whether Albanians went alongside West or East⁷² stems directly from the intense debate relating to the respective influence on Albanian society.
The Myth About Scanderbeg
The anti-Ottoman resistance led by Scanderbeg, is seen by these authors as the most convincing argument which evince the affiliation of Albanians with Europe and western world. These authors keep mythizing Scanderbeg in that level which is required by modern goals. The dire necessity out of which emerged the figure of Scanderbeg can be placed on 19^th century when Albanian nationalists were eager to find an outstanding historical personality which would amplify their struggle against Ottoman Empire. Scanderbeg was deemed as the most eligible historical personality to carry out this mission. An Albanian born into an Orthodox family, later converted on Muslim during his stay on Ottoman court, Scanderbeg left out Ottoman army on 1443 when he stirred up a successful anti-Ottoman resistance which lasted untill his death in 1468. The first mythization of Scanderbeg was carried by European Christian writers, who felt menaced by the Ottoman Empire. They saw on Scanderbeg a noble knight who could inspire the European Resistance against Muslim Ottomans.⁷³

Scanderbeg, as displayed on history textbooks in Kosovo, is overly mythized. An image showing the monument of Scanderbeg in Prishtina is stamped on the first page of history textbook dedicated for the 5^th grade, while on the introduction about Scanderbeg is asserted: “The noble family of Kastriot was from Has.”⁷⁴ It is quite interesting that from a plenty of theories concerning Scanderbeg’s origin, these authors have a predilection for that theory according to which this hero sprung from a village in nearby of modern Kosovo. Does this claim represent an attempt to further affiliate students of Kosovo with Scanderbeg, or a disguised willing to ‘usurp’ him?⁷⁵ It's hard to find an answer on such question.

Scanderbeg is portrayed on this fashion: “The wars waged by Scanderbeg thwarted Ottoman army to advance on his campaign to conquer Europe. It can be stated that Scanderbeg defended Europe from Ottoman onslaughts...Scanderbeg remains a standing national personality and a great personality on European history...Numerous monuments of the hero...have been erected on several cities of Europe: in Rome, Brussels, Geneva, etc.”⁷⁶

On the history textbook for the 10^th grade, there is a special chapter entitled “The cooperation of Scanderbeg with Europe”, where it is explicitly stated: “The war of Albanians led by Scanderbeg had a powerful echo all over Europe. The western Europeans considered him as the main bulwark against Ottoman incursions on the eastern fringes of continent...The Popes of Rome had a sympathy for him...and they called him as a ''defender of Christendom''...they bestowed on him the title “General Captain of the Holy See”.⁷⁷ “The fierce resistance of Albanians was a protecting shield for Western Europe...Scanderbeg maintained good relations with many European countries...The anti-Ottoman struggle of Albanians was highly praised by the European audiences ...Thus...Scanderbeg might be regarded as a defender of European civilization.”⁷⁸

The view according to which Scanderbeg fought on behalf of Europe appears often on the attempts to construe a pure European identity and socialize new generations with this concept. But this attempt is at odds with the historical Scanderbeg. The dilemma here is between mythic Scanderbeg and historical Scanderbeg.⁷⁹ Such statements pave the way to provide a new set of values in line with modern politics.⁸⁰


The Myth of Cultural Homogenity
The authors of these textbooks have been too cautious to not challenge the image of a western identity of Albanians by unraveling historical elements which indicate a link with eastern world. This can be noticed on myths concerning religious pragmatism, where the role of Islam on Albanian society is not properly evaluated.⁸¹ “Although, the peoples of Balkans embraced Islam, they preserved their language, traditions and customs...Dhimitër and the population of Arbëria were converted from Orthodox rite to the Catholic one...He aimed to affiliate Albanians with western countries.”⁸² Considering that Islam comprises all oriental elements on Albanian culture, it is portrayed with an old covering, beneath of which lie the occidental identity of Albanians. Thus many Albanian writers, painters or architects who had a bright career, are precluded from Albanian culture. They are seen solely as personalities “who contributed for Ottoman culture.”⁸³

For the old dilemma whether Albanians pertain to west or east⁸⁴, these authors have given an arbitrary answer by openly clinging to the western civilization. This inclination towards West relies upon the deliberate attempt to envisage a compact identity with a Western veneer. The way of construction process of this identity, is an “escape from the East”.⁸⁵ This myth relies on the cultural homogeneity idea, according to which Albanian society was a monolith entity with no diversity.⁸⁶ The endeavors to ‘westernize’ as much as possible the history of Albanians is best exemplified by some details on the illustration for the history book of the 7^th grade, where Ali Pashë Tepelena and British poet, Gordon Byron are painted in a seemingly western interior.⁸⁷ This illustration does not reconcile with historical truth, given that Ali Pashë Tepelena had a typical oriental life on his palace built on oriental style. Moreover, these authors take pain to mention the contribution of Albanians on western culture. They point to the Illyrian or Albanian origin of Alexander the Great, Constandine the Great⁸⁸, Saint Jeronime, Justinian⁸⁹, Anastas⁹⁰, or Francesko Krispi.⁹¹