FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO SOCIAL
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Available research indicates that SED in middle
childhood is influenced by complex interactions
among multiple personal and contextual factors.
Personal factors include genetic endowment [3],
temperament [4], cognitive abilities [5], self-esteem
[6], social cognition [7] and moral development
[8]. Contextual factors include attachment [9], par-
enting style [10], parental adjustment [11], family
functioning [12], school environment [13], peer
group relationships [14], and the wider social and
cultural environment [15]. From a clinical per-
spective, in any given case, we may expect more
successful SED where there are more positive than
negative personal and contextual factors. In con-
trast, where there are more negative than positive
personal and contextual factors, problems with
SED may occur.
Positive SED
With regard to personal factors, young people are
more likely to develop the skills for emotional
expression and regulation and for making and
maintaining relationships if they have favourable
genetic endowments, easy temperaments, ade-
quate cognitive abilities to understand their
feelings and the emotional demands of their
important relationships, adequate self-esteem, the
capacity to understand social situations accurately
and a well-developed conscience. With regard
to contextual factors, positive SED is more
likely where children have developed secure
attachments; where their parents have adopted
an authoritative parenting style characterized by
warmth and a moderate level of control; where
their parents have no major adjustment problems;
and where the family, school, peer group and
wider social environments have been supportive.
For example, in a UK study Bowes
et al
. [16] found
that children from supportive families showed
resilience when bullied in primary school.
Problematic SED
Problematic SED may occur where there are
difficulties with genetic endowment, temperament,
cognitive abilities, self-esteem, social cognition
and moral development. Problematic SED is
associated with unfavourable genetic endowments
indexed by family histories of psychopathology. A
childhood history of difficult temperament is also
associated with problematic emotional develop-
ment. With regard to cognitive abilities, children
with intellectual disabilities tend to acquire skills
for expressing and regulating emotions and man-
aging relationships at a slower rate than children
without such disabilities. Disproportionately more
children with intellectual disabilities, than with-
out, show challenging behaviour associated with
emotional regulation problems. Children with low
self-esteem, who evaluate themselves negatively,
have difficulty regulating negative mood states
and managing relationships. Children who have
problematic social cognition, notably those who
have developed a hostile attributional bias where
they inaccurately attribute negative intentions to
others, have difficulties regulating anger and main-
taining positive peer group relationships. Children
who have not internalized social rules and norms
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