Cambridge Grammar of English Hardback with cd-rom a comprehensive Guide

DEIXIS: VIEWPOINT AND TIME AND PLACE REFERENCES

93

General 93a

Deixis refers to the way speakers orient themselves and their listeners in terms of

person, time and space in relation to the immediate situation of speaking. Deictic

features occur in both written and spoken language. For example, a written notice

might say Vehicles must not be parked here, where here most likely refers to the

immediate environment of the notice itself. However, deictic items are more

common in spoken English as the relationship between the discourse and the

situation is typically more immediate. 

References to the immediate situation are achieved mainly by means of

determiners such as this, these, that, those, adverbs such as here, now, there, then,

ago

and personal pronouns such as I, we, him, us. Deictic words are especially

common in situations where joint actions are undertaken and where people and

things referred to can be seen by the participants. The following examples contain

deictic items (in bold) which orient the listener interpersonally (who is referred

to), temporally (when) and spatially (where). Note how the meaning of we can

differ between being inclusive and exclusive:

178 | From utterance to discourse

Cambridge Grammar of English

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[message left on an answerphone]

I’m phoning up about this trying to set up a meeting and various other things I

believe. Erm there’s a centre staff meeting at two on Friday twenty fourth. And 

I

was thinking perhaps 

we could meet in the morning beforehand if you’re going

to be free 

that day. Anyway er give me a ring. I’m around tomorrow. Though

tomorrow afternoon I’m not about because I’ve got an appointment at the

hospital. So 

I don’t know how long I’ll be there. But I’m here tomorrow

morning Friday so ring.

We

in this case includes the speaker and the listener. Note also how references

such as around and about could mean the speaker’s home or place of work,

depending on where the speaker is or on what the common understanding of

around

and about are between the speaker and listener:

[in a restaurant]

Waiter: Right ladies. 

Customer A: Shall we order some starters? 

Customer B: Yeah. 

Customer C: Yeah. 

Customer A: Er, sesame prawn toast. 

Waiter: Yeah.

(we in this case includes A, B and C, but excludes the waiter)

A: What are you doing at Christmas?

B: We’re having my brother and a friend for lunch on Christmas Day. 

A: Right. Mm. 

B: But otherwise we’re not doing a great deal. 

A: Okay. And New Year’s Eve or New Year’s Day? 

B: No we don’t really bother. 

A: Right.

(we excludes the listener)

I’d like to pop in to that little shop over there before we leave.

(we in this case may or may not include the listener(s), depending on context)