Cambridge Grammar of English Hardback with cd-rom a comprehensive Guide

Û

539 Glossary for any unfamiliar terms

Speech acts | 683

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[looking at a small child]

Gosh! 

Hasn’t she grown!

Sometimes life played cruel tricks … 

Didn’t it just! 

Imperative clauses as offers and invitations

410d

Friendly offers and invitations, which are commissive speech acts (

Û

417–419

),

often occur in the imperative form:

A: 

Have another drink

.

B: Oh, no thanks, I’ve had enough thanks.

A: 

Come and see us some time

if you’re in the area.

B: Mm, yeah, that’d be nice. I will.

MODAL EXPRESSIONS AND SPEECH ACTS 

411

When modal expressions concerned with necessity, obligation, permission, etc.

(

Û

377–407 Modality

) are used in declarative and interrogative clauses, they often

function as directives (realising speech acts such as commanding, instructing,

suggesting, advising, warning, requesting) and commissives (promising, offering,

inviting). 

The modal verbs can/could, will/would, shall/should, may/might, must, 

ought to

are used frequently in this way:

[swimming instructor to learner]

You 

shouldn’t be looking at me Joseph, you should be looking out of the

window.

(should is heard as a directive: the swimmer must do what the instructor says)

Could you just hang on a second, Joan?

(could is heard as a directive; Joan can hardly refuse to do what the speaker asks)

Here, I

’ll carry that for you.

(’ll is heard as an offer)

We

’ll get it done for you by Friday, no problem.

(’ll is heard as a promise)

It is not just which modal verb is used but which clause type it occurs in that

affects the speech act being performed. In the subsequent sections on modal verbs

(

412–420

), declarative and interrogative uses are distinguished as the speech acts

they signal may vary. 

Each type of speech act is described in terms of its modal verb choices and its

occurrence in declarative and interrogative clauses.

684 | Speech acts

Cambridge Grammar of English

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