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Selective reporting. 
Subordinates may give superiors incorrect or incomplete information (eg to protect a 
colleague, to avoid bothering the superior); also a senior manager may only be able to handle edited 
information because they do not have time to sift through details.
Use. 
Managers may be prepared to make decisions on a hunch without proper regard to the 
communications they may or may not have received.
Timing. 
Information which has 
no immediate 
use may be forgotten.
Opportunity. 
Opportunity, formal or informal, for people to say what they think may be lacking. 
Conflict.
Where there is conflict between individuals or departments, communications will be withdrawn 
and information withheld. 
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CHAPTER 18
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PERSONAL EFFECTIVENESS AND COMMUNICATION 
 
467 
Personal differences
. Differences such as age, educational/social background or personality mean that 
people have different views as to what is important or different ways of expressing those views. 
Sometimes individuals' views may be discounted because of who they are, not what they say. 
9.2.1 Culture 
Secrecy. 
Information might be given on a need-to-know basis, rather than be considered as a potential 
resource for everyone to use. 
Can't handle bad news. 
The culture of some organisations may prevent the communication of certain 
messages. Organisations with a 'can-do' philosophy may not want to hear that certain tasks are 
impossible. 
9.2.2 Categories of communication problems 
(a) 
System. 
There may be a bad formal communication system. 
(b) 
Misunderstanding. 
There may be misunderstanding about the actual content of a message. 
(c)