Article in International Journal of Training and Development · August 003 doi: 10. 1111/1468-2419. 00169 citations 94 reads 1,925 authors

.374
⫺
.034
.046
2.
Opportunity to choose
⫺
.027
⫺
.029
.154
.523
⫺
.009
.161
tasks
3.
Supervisors have
ⴚ
.516
.111
⫺
.163
⫺
.003
.050
⫺
.025
nothing to learn
4.
Clear idea of what’s
⫺
.014
⫺
.146
.114
.129
.594
.225
expected
5.
A lot of employees are
⫺
.131
.092
.050
.019
.085
.625
friends
6.
Workload is too heavy
.024
.820
⫺
.062
⫺
.086
⫺
.004
.033
7.
Supervisors receptive
.472
⫺
.080
.098
.159
.039
⫺
.177
to suggest.
8.
Work is good
⫺
.066
⫺
.011
.962
⫺
.092
.067
⫺
.006
preparation
9.
Can learn from
.001
⫺
.170
⫺
.154
⫺
.096
.107
.025
instructions
10.
Encouraged to develop
.122
.052
.094
.511
.271
.088
interests
11.
Most supervisors well
.501
⫺
.038
.032
.057
.324
⫺
.022
prepared
12.
Work standards well
.223
⫺
.129
⫺
.039
.053
.567
.138
known
13.
Employees get together
⫺
.042
⫺
.068
.037
.053
.067
.634
socially
14.
Too many different
⫺
.081
.508
⫺
.050
.079
.098
.041
things to do
15.
Supervisors consult
.627
⫺
.013
⫺
.021
.173
.057
⫺
.047
employees
16.
Professional training
⫺
.012
.112
.140
.214
.295
.081
pointed out
17.
Expected to learn on
⫺
.073
.489
.080
.118
⫺
.025
.035
own
18.
Lot of choice in work
.003
⫺
.143
.048
.568
.011
.133
19.
Supervisors explain at
.452
⫺
.081
.082
.115
.155
.175
right level
20.
Hard to know how
ⴚ
.310
.164
⫺
.262
.069
ⴚ
.320
.026
well doing
21.
Friendly climate
.308
⫺
.123
.007
.016
⫺
.117
.501
fostered
22.
Difficult to find time to
⫺
.053
.361
⫺
.086
ⴚ
.346
.077
.016
learn
23.
Supervisors try to
.654
⫺
.018
.133
⫺
.271
⫺
.067
.280
know employees
24.
Productivity
⫺
.067
.210
⫺
.012
⫺
.088
.183
⫺
.078
requirements
25.
Encouraged to find out
.191
.237
.111
.350
.044
.004
things
26.
Can work in ways/suit
.304
.093
.000
.584
⫺
.177
.112
learning
[continued on next page]
Approaches to learning at work and workplace climate
45
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Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2003

---

Table 4 (continued): Factor loadings for the WCQ, 6-factor solution, combined data, odd-
numbered cases
Item
Good Work-
Vocation Choice-
Clear
Social
super. load
rel.
ind.
expect. net.
27.
Supervisors/understand
.713
⫺
.029
⫺
.028
.030
.217
⫺
.146
difficulties
28.
Supervisors tell what
.185
⫺
.134
⫺
.026
ⴚ
.368
.329
.072
to do
29.
Meetings are well
.328
.174
⫺
.052
.109
.112
.195
attended
30.
Too much work to get
.161
.901
⫺
.032
⫺
.109
⫺
.078
.029
through
31.
Supervisors are
.629
.037
⫺
.003
⫺
.113
⫺
.078
.263
friendly
32.
Work improves future
.040
⫺
.070
.852
⫺
.045
⫺
.033
.039
employment
33.
Told what to do/little
⫺
.274
.009
⫺
.140
ⴚ
.344
⫺
.023
.022
discussion
34.
Choice how to learn
.263
.055
⫺
.055
.654
⫺
.074
.048
tasks
35.
Supervisors ready to
.582
⫺
.009
.041
.039
.044
.196
help
36.
A lot of pressure
⫺
.055
.649
.051
⫺
.109
⫺
.050
⫺
.024
37.
Employees discuss
.024
.051
⫺
.017
.010
⫺
.001
.432
work
38.
Requirements made
.308
⫺
.037
⫺
.034
⫺
.151
.525
.125
clear
39.
Emphasis on ‘right’
.027
.246
⫺
.002
⫺
.037
.437
⫺
.028
attitudes
40.
Supervisors take ideas
.754
⫺
.008
⫺
.020
.100
⫺
.037
⫺
.010
seriously
Correlations
Good supervision
1.000
Workload
⫺
.177
1.000
Vocational relevance
.251
.013
1.000
Choice-independence
.242
⫺
.026
.370
1.000
Clear expectations
.289
.038
.089
⫺
.045
1.000
Social network
.331
.005
.180
.137
.187
1.000
Note
: Loadings of .3 or more have been bolded to emphasise factor structures.
components, which we termed rational and disorganised, make considerable sense.
Surface-rational consists primarily of surface strategies, and reflects a preference for
orderly, accurate, and detailed work. There is little in surface-rational that describes
the fear-of-failure or extrinsic motives usually associated with the surface factor in
the student learning literature (e.g. Biggs, 1987, 1993; Entwistle and Ramsden, 1983).
Surface-disorganised, on the other hand, is a combination of surface motives and
Entwistle and Ramsden’s non-academic orientation; it is more a
reaction
to work than
an approach to it. The surface construct is complex (Biggs
et al.
, 2001; Evans
et al.
,
in press; Kember
et al.
, 1999), perhaps too complex, consisting of motives and stra-
tegies that need not cohere. For instance, an extrinsic motive for studying may be
common in technical subjects, yet act in combination with meaningful learning; simi-
46
International Journal of Training and Development
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Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2003

---

Table 5: Cronbach’s alpha for the final version of the WCQ
Scale
Alpha
Odd-numbered
Even-numbered
cases
cases
N
=
236
N
=
236
1. Good supervision (5 items)
.84
.87
2. Workload (5 items)
.80
.74
3. Choice-independence (5 items)
.80
.78
Table 6: Factor loadings for the final version of the WCQ, even-numbered cases
Item
Good
Workload Choice-
supervision
independence
1. Opportunity to choose tasks (CI)
⫺
.003
.024
.757
2. Workload is too heavy (WL)
.133
.844
⫺
.079
3. Required to do too many different
⫺
.075
.469
.002
things (WL)
4. Expected to learn on own (WL)
⫺
.084
.308
.161
5. Lot of choice in work (CI)
⫺
.020
⫺
.112
.848
6. Supervisors try to know employees
.760
⫺
.009
⫺
.078
(GS)
7. Supervisors try to understand
.804
⫺
.018
.042
difficulties (GS)
8. Too much work to get through (WL)
.116
.838
⫺
.038
9. Supervisors are friendly to
.761
.043
⫺
.027
employees (GS)
10. Employees have choices of how to
.343
.044
.469
learn tasks (CI)
11. Supervisors always ready to help in
.716
⫺
.049
⫺
.018
learning (GS)
12. There is a lot of pressure on
⫺
.078
.560
⫺
.077
employees (WL)
13. Supervisors take employee ideas
.712
⫺
.065
.118
seriously (GS)
14. Encouraged to develop own work
.382
⫺
.067
.180
interests (CI)
15. Can work in ways which suit your
.291
.058
.441
learning (CI)
Correlations
Good supervision
1.000
Workload
⫺
.218
1.000
Choice-independence
.436
.044
1.000
Notes
: CI
=
Choice-independence item; WL
=
Workload item; GS
=
Good supervision item
Loadings of .3 or more have been bolded to emphasise factor structure.
Approaches to learning at work and workplace climate
47

Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2003

---

Table 7: Correlations between the AWQ and WCQ scales
AWQ scales
WCQ scales
Good
Workload
Choice-
supervision
independence
Deep
.186**
.034
.295**
Surface-rational
⫺
.016
.030
⫺
.157**
Surface-disorganised
⫺
.288**
.438**
⫺
.245**
Note
: N
=
472; **
p
⬎
.01
larly an extrinsically motivated student may not fear failure. It may be worthwhile
to re-examine student learning, to see if distinct surface factors can be obtained.
The three approach dimensions were essentially uncorrelated. This is consistent
with previous studies of deep and surface approaches, even though those previous
studies used less sophisticated factor analytic methods and frequently assumed
uncorrelated factors. It may seem odd that deep processing is uncorrelated with sur-
face processing, when the constructs sound as though they should be negatively
related. The lack of relationship would be strange if the question was how a parti-
cular learner would approach a particular situation. The approach measures, how-
ever, ask how learners would approach situations in general, especially with respect
to their (in this study) current workplace. It is not impossible for a deep learner to
be disaffected (surface-disorganised) in the current workplace, nor is it impossible
for a deep learner to accept that a surface-rational approach may be optimal in a
given situation.
In the context of approaches to learning at work, the three-factor solution we found
makes sense. Deep and surface-rational represent complementary approaches that
are appropriate at different levels of responsibility or for different tasks. Surface-
disorganised is more pathological, representing disaffection with the work environ-
ment and a sense of incompetence in the work tasks. The failure to find consistent
support for the achieving factor may be due to the items we employed, but is more
likely due to the difference between the contexts faced by students and employees.
Whereas students and employees may easily see themselves in competition with their
peers, employees are also responsible for cooperating with their peers at work and
may be more likely to see their unit or organisation in competition with other units
or organisations. The individually-oriented achieving factor of the student learning
literature is less relevant in the context of work.
The structure of the Workplace Climate Questionnaire was broadly consistent with
that found previously by Knapper (1995) and to a reasonable degree with those for
the Course Perceptions Questionnaire (Ramsden and Entwistle, 1981). Good super-
vision, choice-independence, and workload are three logically-separable dimensions
of employees’ perceptions of their workplace. The positive relationship between the
first two dimensions is noteworthy.
The correlations between scales indicate potentially important associations
between employees’ perceptions of their work environment and the approaches they
report to learning within it. As hypothesised, there was a positive association
between the deep approach and perceptions of positive aspects of the work environ-
ment (good supervision and choice-independence). This relationship is most likely
reciprocal, with the individual’s deeper learning being more productive and leading
to more managerial support and choice, and a more supportive and challenging
environment encouraging deeper learning. It may also be that deeper learners are
attracted to positions with more supportive supervision and choice-independence.
Future studies should investigate whether the perceptions of good supervision and
choice are valid, that is whether other observers would characterise the workplaces
48
International Journal of Training and Development
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---

in those ways. Although it is not legitimate to argue from these results that good
(i.e. more supportive) supervision and choice
produce
deeper learning, they are more
likely to do so than their opposites.
The correlations involving workload were also consistent with our hypotheses,
though for the new surface-disorganised factor rather than a broader surface factor.
The strong positive relation between the workload and surface-disorganised scales
may also be reciprocal, those who are most alienated from their work being more
likely to perceive that there is too much of it, and those required to do too much
work being most likely to be overwhelmed by it. The pattern is completed by the
negative relations between surface-disorganised and the other two WCQ scales. It
seems unlikely that surface-disorganised workers would be attracted to positions
with poor supervision, little choice and high workload. However, future research
needs to assess the validity of the perceptions of workload—some employees may
actually have excessive loads whereas others may only perceive them. Both may be
prone to surface-disorganisation, but the remedies may be different.