tajdid in Muhammadiyah includes: (1) Purification of faith and
worship, as well as the formation of noble character (al-akhlaq al-karimah); (2)
Development of dynamic attitude, creative, progressive, and vision futuristic; (3)
Development of organizational leadership and work ethic in Muhammadiyah
organization.
34
The decree of XXII Tarjih Congress 1989 in Malang become a foothold for
Muhammadiyah in response to the increas of social changes in the values of life, socio-
cultural, socio-economic, political, and so on, with a message of directing Islamic
teachings comprehended dynamicly and consistently with the purification of Islamic
teachings. In the context of the specific task of the Legal Affairs Committee (tarjih)
which is in charge of deepening the understanding and practice of Islam as well as the
development of Islamic thought, the concept of tajdid above become a foundation in
guarding the development of thought, both internal Muhammadiyah and in response to
the development of Islamic thought in general.
Renewal (Tajdid) in Muhammadiyah Education System
1. Renewal of Muhammadiyah Education
Muhammadiyah has reached many achievements, variety of ideas and models of
reform that have been etched in golden ink by its founding fathers, assabiqun al-
awwalun . Religious traditions that are now taken for granted, reasonable, and common
are the result of a great religious reform and revolution. Muhammadiyah has
conducted reformation in various fields, including organization, sermons, and Islamic
education.
In the field of education, Muhammadiyah has made three reformations. First, the
renewal of curriculum. Muhammadiyah educational institutions teach religious studies
as well as the "non-religious" studies such as history, mathematics, and geography, and
so on. Secondly, the renewal of learning methods. Muhammadiyah schools has used the
desk and chair with a classical system and applied modern learning
strategies. Third, renewal of institution. Muhammadiyah developed madrasah education
system which combine Islamic boarding school system with the public school system.
35
Through these educational reforms, Muhammadiyah provided enormous
scientific, educational, and social contributions. Muhammadiyah has laid the foundations
of Islamic studies which are not dichotomous: religious and secular (non-religious). The
dichotomy of science has spawned a dichotomy of education: pesantren (religion; Islam)
and schools (secular; Christian). The dichotomy of science and education also spawned
a dichotomy and social segregation: santri, students (putihan) versus the secular
(abangan).
Thus, Muhammadiyah is able to build integrative education and non-dichotomy
between religion and general knowledge.
36
Therefor, it is necessary to build a
34
Tanfiz of the Decree of Tarjih Muhammadiyah Conference XII …, p. 48.
35
Abdul Mu’ti, “Tajdid atas Tajdid Pendidikan Muhammadiyah”, in Farid Setiawan (et.al), Mengokohkan
Spirit Pendidikan Muhammadiyah, First Edition (Yogyakarta: Pyramedia, 2010), p. x.
36
Abdurrahman Mas’ud, Menggagas Format Pendidikan Nondikotomik: Humanisme Religius sebagai
Paradigma Pendidikan Islam (Yogyakarta: Gema Media, 2002), p. 65.
International Journal of Educational Studies
Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015
9
distinctive educational philosophy of Muhammadiyah which could provide alternative
solution to the problems of education in Indonesia today.
37
Moreover, Zamroni said that tajdid of Muhammadiyah education is an absolute
necessity. Tajdid of education contains three main elements. Firstly, developing policies
that can minimize the gap of education, geographicalli and socially. Second, developing a
humane education that aims at developing integrative individual as well as sturdy and
strong group. And third, developing multicultural education in order that the
educational services can be gained by all people, and all students have an equal
opportunity to grow and develop optimally.
38
The principle of tajdid of Muhammadiyah education is a commitment to realize
the Law No. 20 Year 2003 on National Education System which tells, among other,
that every citizen has the same rights to acquire qualified education (Article 5,
paragraph 1), and every citizen aged seven to fifteen years is compulsory to get
primary education (Article 6, paragraph 1). Thus, the principle of tajdid is in line with
the principles of standing up for the dhu'afa (the hane not) that become the principle of
Muhammadiyah education.
39
In the frame of reconstruction and renewal of spirit of tajdid, Muhammadiyah
need to do three things: first, to revive the tradition of Islamic studies that is based on
the deepening and widening the understanding of the Qur'an and al-Sunnah, which is
relevant to the methodology of Muhammadiyah. In accordance with the identity as a
tajdid movement ,Muhammadiyah states that the door of ijtihad is still open. In line with
this principle, Muhammadiyah states that Qur'anic revelation is final, but the
interpretation of the Qur’ran - as a product of ijtihad, ra'yu or reasoning - is still open
to be re-examined.
With this step, KH Ahmad Dahlan was able to absolvepeople from the shackles
of historical heritage and divisive interpretation. For example, the main basis underlying
the establishment of Muhammadiyah is a "new understanding" of KH Ahmad Dahlan
about the meaning of "ummah" in the Qur'an, not pragmatic reasons, as suggested by
the members of the Budi Utomo. The reason why KH Ahmad Dahlan provided general
studies and religion is not to imitate the West, but because of the understanding about
the Qur’an that states that there is no dichotomy of religion versus of non-religion
science. All knowledge comes from Allah SWT.
The dichotomy of Science is caused by human inference in understanding the
verses of Allah SWT., Both contained in the Scriptures or that unfolds in the
universe. When adopting the Dutch education, KH Ahmad Dahlan had a strong
theological foundation, that cooperate in muamalah-worldly matters, with the non-
Muslim community (including the Netherlands) is allowed in the Qur’an.
40
Therefore, the Muhammadiyah education reform in the early days had a strong
Qur'anic foundation. This spirit is needs developing in the current context of
37
Syamsul Anwar, “Manhaj Ijtihad/Tajdid …, p. 73.
38
Zamroni, “Tajdid Pendidikan dalam Era Globalisasi: Memanaskan Manusia untuk Pencerahan
Peradaban”, in Jendra, Mifedwil and M. Safar Nasir (ed.), Tajdid Muhammadiyah untuk Pencerahan dan
Peradaban (Majlis Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah PP. Muhammadiyah, 2005), p. 159.
39
Hamdan, Paradigma Pendidikan Muhammadiyah (Yogyakarta: ar-Ruzmedia, 2009), p. 112-113.
40
Ibid., p. xii.
Anis Husni Firdaus
10
Muhammadiyah education. Regarding education, it seems necessary to study more the
concepts of education of the Qur'an, such as: tarbiyah, ta’lim, tazkiyah, and so forth.
Second, being creative and courageous to offer new systems. Up to now, this
kind of spirit can be considered very weak. This weakness seems to be caused by
"obedience" of the Muhammadiyah education providers against national education
system, and the rules of Muhammadiyah education. From the view of bureaucracy, this
"obedience" could be a problem that makes education of Muhammadiyah lose its
ghirah, spirit of creativity and is imprisoned by administrative routines. Therefore,
there should be the courage to offer new things with the anticipated risks.
This spirit of creativity should be developed by understanding global change,
reading development trend, and being courage to try new things. Therefore, the
leaders of Muhammadiyah bureaucracy, in this case Dikdasmen Council, should provide
a boost to grow creativity and get rewards. It is a pity, if some creative ideas on
Muhammadiyah education development vanished because they are not in accordance
with the rules and the national education system.
Third, being independence. The concept of independence is composed of two
aspects,
namely self-funded (self-financing)
and
the
ability
to
establish
cooperation (networking).The former is a main prerequisite for Muhammadiyah as a
community movement. The awareness for charity and invest in education with
professional management needs to be revived. The sense of belonging of
Muhammadiyah members to the institution actualized in the form of donations and
develop efforts seems decreasing. Therefore education philanthropy would need to be
rebuilt with more transparent and accountable management.
Through the development of the education system, Muhammadiyah has
managed to build the paradigm of integrative science and educational
institutions. Through education, Muhammadiyah succeeded in building a "new
generation" that has intact personality, knowlegable and religious. At a certain level,
Muhammadiyah successfully removed social segregation and united divided society in
terms of religion, economy and politic. In short, through education, Muhammadiyah has
participated in advancing and unifying the people.
Thus, it can be said that tajdid of Muhammadiyah in education field is more
focused on improving the quality of the education process and establishing integrative
education system.In addition, the need for equitable distribution of education is not
only for the members of Muhammadiyah, but also for te whole people of
Indonesia. The equitaility of education means that all citizen regardless of their
background have equal access to education in all types and levels.
2. Integration of Muhammadiyah Education
Muhammadiyah education system that integrates the dimensions of Islam with
modernity stems from a deep concern of KH Ahmad Dahlan on the condition of
dichotomous education in Indonesia. The traditional Islamic education tends to provide
only Islamic teaching on a limited basis. Education. This kind of education is, generally,
in the form of pesantren, boarding school which focuses on developing the knowledge
and skills of practical religion for the sake of worship. Teaching model used is more
International Journal of Educational Studies
Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015
11
emphasized on the mastery of religious knowledge and skills which is conducted in
simple way, and even performed in simple practises, that’s why Islamic education in
boarding schools commonly known as traditional Islamic education.
41
In an ideal concept level, Islam as a religion which is believed to have a
perfect,
42
comprehensive and universal teaching.
43
According to the interpretation of
the scholars, Islam contains a system of knowledge.
44
There is no dichotomy in Islam.
It means that there is no dichotomy between religious education and general
education, they are integrated and balance. Religion is the basis whatever the field and
disciplines practiced.
Islamic education which has integral pattern is an education system that trains
students feelings in such a way in order that the attitudes, actions, decisions and their
approach to any kind of knowledge, are influenced by spiritual values and are aware of
the ethical values of Islam. Although this idea is a classical yet it still attracts attention,
because to realize the practical level is not always easy. After educational reform has
been conducting for one century, duality of Islamic education (also Muhammadiyah)
still stands out. A cultural duality appears everywhere in the Muslim world, a duality in
society that comes from dual education system; traditional Islamic educational system,
and modern secular education system. Therefore, the process of searching integral
education system should be carried out continuously in line with the acceleration of
social change and the findings of innovative education.
Therefore, integration of education system means integrating Islamic religious
sciences and general sciences, since both of them have the same position and are in the
shade of Islam. Essencially, the sphere of one knowledge with others is integral and
complementary. This perspective is relevant to the fact that the problem of human life
is complex, requiring completion in integrated science approach.
In the education of Muhammadiyah, the principle of integration also means a
combination of ideals and spiritual values of Islam with the empirical-historical
values. In line with this, Buya Shafi'i Maarif as quoted by Muhaimin said that the vision
and mission of Islamic education are based on the ethical and spiritual values of Islam in
order to integrate the human and the divine dimensions.
45
Thus, Islamic education is more theo-anthropocentric. The Target of Islamic
education covers all aspects of human personality, i.e developing the whole human
potential to create pious Muslim personality, Muslim who has a Rabbani
vision ,
46
Muslim who is healthy, emotionally and socially smart, and independent.
41
Abdul Malik Fajar, Madrasah dan Tantangan Modernitas (Bandung: Mizan, 1998), p. 19-21. See also
Azyumardi Azra, cited in Marwan Saridjo, Bunga Rampai Pendidikan Agama Islam (Jakarta: CV. Amisco,
1996), p. 37-38.
42
Q.S. Al-Maidah [5]: 3.
43
Q.S. Al-Anbiya [21]: 107.
44
Endang Saefudin Anshari, Wawasan Islam: Pokok-pokok Pikiran tentang Islam dan Umatnya (Jakarta:
Rajawali Press, 1991), p. 120-125.
45
Ahmad Syafi’i Ma’arif, Menerobos Kemelut: Refleksi Cendekiawan Muslim (Jakarta: Grafindo Khazanah
Ilmu, 2005), p. 2.
46
Abbas Mahjub, Ushul al-Fikr al-Tarbawi fi al-Islami (Beirut: al-Imarat al-Arabiyah al-Muttahidah, 1987), p.
16.
Anis Husni Firdaus
12
The implementation of the concept of science integration in education of
Muhammadiyah is then formulated in the content standard of curriculum. In this case,
the structure of Muhammadiyah education curriculum includes compulsory subjects,
namely al-Islam, Kemuhammadiyahan, and Arabic, and general lessons decided by
government in accordance with the type and level of education. Integrated education,
as has been pioneered by KH Ahmad Dahlan, is expected to produce graduates who
have science and technology competences, Islamic knowledge, and life skills. With
these abilities, Muhammadiyah education graduates are expected to carry out their
function as the Caliph of Allah.in the world.
Conclusions
Based on the analysis and discussion on the concept of Tajdid in Education System
of Muhammadiyah above, it can be concluded that:
First, KH Ahmad Dahlan is a thinker and a pioneer of Islamic education. The
breadth of KH Ahmad Dahlan’s thought in the field of education was able to answer
the problems of the people at that time, one of them is education problem. The
emergence of dichotomous education, religious education (in pesantren) and general
education, which is secular, awakened KH Ahmad Dahlan to carry out the ideas of
renewal (tajdid) in education. One of renewal models developed by KH Ahmad Dahlan
was to integrate between the two sciences (religious and general sciences). In other
words, he offered the concept of integrated education. He considers that the religious
science and general science is united in Islamic science.
Second, the meaning of tajdid of Muhammadiyah includes (1) purification, which is
intended maintain Islamic teachings based on the Qur'an and Sunnah; (2) improvement,
development, modernization and the like. While the purpose of Muhammadiyah’s
tajdid is to functionlize Islam as a religion of rahmatan lil alamiin, as well as
guidance, hudan for society to reach a better and useful life based on the Qur'an and
Sunnah. Moreover, the dimensions of Muhammadiyah’s tajdid are (1) Purification of
faith and worship, as well as the formation of noble characters (al-akhla q al-
karimah); (2) Development of dynamic, creative, progressive, and futuristic
attitudes; (3) Development of organizational leadership and work ethos in the
organization of Muhammadiyah.
Third, educational reform conducted by Muhammadiyah covers, at least, three
areas, namely: (1) the renewal of curriculum; (2) the renewal of teaching methods; and
(3) the renewal of institution. Through the development of the education system,
Muhammadiyah successfully established scientific and educational institution paradigms
that are integrative and equitable access to education for all people, regardless of social
status and gender.
International Journal of Educational Studies
Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015
13
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International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015
ISSN 1682-4377
http://fssh-journal.org
15
PERSONOLOGICAL FACTORS
AND SEXTING
BEHAVIOUR AMONG IN-SCHOOL ADOLESCENTS:
IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY
ADEYEMI ADETOLA O. (Ph.D) & MURAINA K. OLANREWAJU (Med)
Department of Guidance and Counselling, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan,
Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
Text messaging is the most popular form of electronic communication among
adolescents. Approximately 1 in 3 teens send over 100 text messages a day. Recently
adolescents have begun to use their cell phones to engage in sexual exploration with
one another. This new occurrence has now been labeled as sexting. This new
phenomenon includes writing sexually explicit messages, taking provocative pictures of
themselves or other individuals, and transmitting these messages using technology. The
purpose of this study was to examine personological factors and sexting behaviour
among in-school adolescents: implications for counselling psychology. Descriptive
research design of ex-post-facto type was used in the study. Multi-stage sampling
technique was used in selecting nine hundred and sixty nine (969) participants out of
one thousand (1,000) which were randomly selected from ten (10) Local Government
Area in Oyo State, Nigeria. The respondents were measured with relevant adopted
standardized scale (instruments) and the data obtained was analyzed using the Pearson
Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) and Multiple regression statistical analysis of the
Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS). Three research Questions were raised
and answered in the study. The result showed that adolescents’ sexting behavior is
significantly correlated with: (1) self esteem (r = .640; p<.05) and (2) social networking
utilization (r= .659; p<.05), the independent variables (self esteem and social
networking utilization) when pulled together have significant contributions to the
sexting behavior among adolescents (R (adjusted) =.667 & R
2
(adjusted) =.631) and
each of the independent variables made a significant contribution to the prediction of
sexting behavior among adolescents. In term of magnitude of contribution, social
networking utilization made the most significant contribution (Beta= .385; t= 9.43;
P<0.05) to the prediction follow by self esteem (Beta= .247; t= 1.62; P<0.05). In view
of these findings, the study stressed that the parents/guardians should be enlightened
on how to improve on their monitoring towards the students’ peer selection and
counseling psychologists should intensify their effort to organize seminars/conferences
on these factors (such as self esteem and social networking utilization among others)
as they significantly influence the sexting behavior among students.
Keywords: Personological factors, self esteem, social networking utilization, sexting
behavior and in-school adolescents
Adeyemi Adetola O. (Ph.D) & Muraina K. Olanrewaju (Med)
16
Introduction
Adolescence period is a turbulent time for the adolescent and even the people
around him or her. At this stage, the adolescent is facing so many changes, which he or
she has to adjust to. Adolescence is a period of rapid physical and emotional change,
characterized by stress and tensions as the child strives to establish an individual
identity on the journey from dependence to independence and adulthood. Smith
(1998) defined adolescence as a time of transition and includes important biological,
social, emotional and cognitive changes that take place quite rapidly over a relative
short period of time accompanied by occasionally turmoil. It is a period in which the
growing child experiences considerable acceleration in growth. It is also a stage in
human development in which children experience transformation in their physique,
emotions, cognitive and social interaction (Falaye, 2012).
Adolescence, a vital stage of growth and development, marks the period of
transition from childhood to adulthood. It is characterized by rapid physiological
changes and psychosocial maturation. Adolescence is also the stage when young people
extend their relationships beyond parents and family and are intensely influenced by
their peers and the outside world in general. As adolescents mature cognitively, their
mental process becomes more analytical. They are now capable of abstract thinking,
better articulation and of developing an independent ideology. These are truly the
years of creativity, idealism, buoyancy and a spirit of adventure. But these are also the
years of experimentation and risk-taking, of giving in to negative peer pressure, of
taking uninformed decisions on crucial issues, especially relating to their bodies and
their sexuality (Arnett, 2014; Benotsch, Snipes, Martin, & Bull, 2012).
Sexting is defined as the act of sending sexually explicit messages or photographs,
primarily between mobile phones. Though relatively new, this risky behavior has gained
national attention as a very serious problem in schools throughout the country. The
danger involved with sexting is that private material can be exchanged and widely
propagated, and the originator has no control over who receives and views the
message or photograph. Recent surveys show that many teenagers that are under the
age of 18 are engaging in sexting behavior, which has led to a legal gray area in many
countries that have strict anti-pornography laws, most prominently the United States
(Benotsch, Snipes, Martin, & Bull, 2012).
A 2008 survey of 1,280 teenagers and young adults reported that 20% of teens
aged 13-19 and 33% of young adults aged 20-26 have sent sexually explicit text
messages of themselves to others in an electronic form (National Campaign to Prevent
Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, 2008). These messages were described as nude or
semi-nude photographs. This phenomenon is relatively new as the term “sexting” was
only coined in 2005. It is evidently a result of the recent advancement in technology
that allows for photographs to be sent electronically. The prevalence of texting has
sky-rocked throughout the past few years, with the Nielsen Company stating that
nationally there are more than 75 billion texts sent a month, with the prominent age
group falling in between the 13-17 range. Teens now see sexting as a way of
communicating and socializing in a more flirtatious manner without the person-to-
person interaction (Ostrager, 2010).
Cyber technologies are also used by adolescents to access and exchange
information, to communicate and to seek entertainment. Mobile phones and social
International Journal of Educational Studies
Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015
17
network sites are media viewed by adolescents as essential and convenient means to
connect with, converse and meet new friends. The online friends network (MySpace,
Facebook), are the most popular sites for “friending” and it is important to understand
how social networking sites operate and what distinguishes them from other social
software tools such as blogs, wikis and other forms of personal communication on the
Web (Rethlefsen, 2007). For teenagers, the number and frequency of contact with
one’s friends on MySpace, Facebook, or similar sites is essentially a form of social
currency, and is linked to adolescent confirmation of self-esteem in addition to
providing an easy means to keep up to date with what one’s friends are doing and
where they are located. For children aged 9-15 years of age, participating in online
social networks is becoming the norm, not the exception and is a hallmark of social
and peer acceptance (Lenhart & Madden, 2007). The personological factors in this
study are self esteem and social networking utilization as they influence sexting
behavior among adolescents.
Self-esteem has long been considered an essential component of good mental
health. It is a widely used concept both in popular language and in psychology. It refers
to an individual’s sense of his or her value or worth, or the extent to which a person
values, approves of, appreciates, prizes, or likes him or herself (Blascovich & Tomaka,
1991). Self-esteem is a set of attitudes and beliefs that a person brings with him or
herself when facing the world. It includes beliefs as to whether he or she can expect
success or failure, how much effort should be put forth, whether failure at a task will
hurt and whether he or she will become more capable as a result of difficult
experiences (Arnett, 2014; Benotsch, Snipes, Martin, & Bull, 2012). In basic terms, self-
esteem is an internal belief system that an individual possesses about one’s self.
The concept of self-esteem has been researched by several social scientists. Some
studies have shown that individuals with high self-esteem are more likely to involve in
sexting than those with low self-esteem (Abel, Adams, & Stevenson, 2014; Ethier,
2006). In contrast, some studies have shown that persons with high self-esteem also
were less likely to practice sexting (Hollar & Snizek, 1996). Other studies have found
no relationship between self-esteem and sexting behavior (Abel, Adams, & Stevenson,
2014; Cooper & Griffin-Shelley, 2012). Oattes and Offman (2007) conducted research
on college students to predict the ability to communicate about satisfying sexting
behavior with a partner. The study also reported that both self-esteem and sexual self-
esteem were predictors of sexting; however, sexual self-esteem was a unique
predictor over and above self-esteem (Oattes and Offman, 2007).
Social networking utilization involves the level at which the students have access
and explore the internet tools and facilities to gain an ultimate access the internet
divide (i.e, world wide web) on the computer. Ellison, Steinfeld, and Lampe (2006)
suggested one reason people are using social network sites is to increase sexting
behaviour. Sexting behaviour is the resources available to an individual through social
interaction (Lin, 2001). There are two types of sexting behaviour called bridging and
bonding sexting behaviour (Putnam, 2000). Social network research has focused mostly
on bridging, the formation of weak connections between individuals who may provide
information and resources, but unlikely to provide emotional support (Granovetter,
2012).
Adeyemi Adetola O. (Ph.D) & Muraina K. Olanrewaju (Med)
18
The reason for the focus on bridging sexting behaviour is because it is believed
that social network structure facilitates the formation and maintenance of these weak
type connections (Donath & Boyd, 2014). Helliwell and Putnam (2004) showed that
social networking utilization and sexting behaviour have a strong positive relationship.
Individuals who have more social resources available to them are likely to indicate
higher sexting behaviour. Some of the main reasons people use social network sites
are to keep in contact with old friends, and maintain or strengthen relationships with
current friends. A strong relationship was found between intensity of Facebook use
and perceived bridging of sexting behaviour.
With the rapid growth and popularity of social networks in the last few years it
seems of importance to understand who and why people are using these services.
Many of the predictions for this study are based on the idea of sexting behaviour as a
motivating factor for social network use (Arnett, 2014). This study is exploratory in
nature and examines the relationships amongst items on the questionnaire and various
personality scales (Introversion-Extroversion, Need for Cognition, Locus of Control,
Satisfaction with Life, and Self Esteem) using stepwise multiple regressions. People may
be using social network sites to try to increase or maintain their sexting behaviour
(Benotsch, Snipes, Martin, & Bull, 2012).
Individuals who participate in social interaction frequently and with a more
diverse group are thought to have more sexting behaviour available to them. A diverse
group of social contacts provides more novel information, and has benefits in areas like
finding out about job opportunities. A study by Hovick, Meyers, and Timmerman
(2003) suggested that e-mail is an important interpersonal medium between sexting
behaviour. As youths (aged 12–24) have become the largest population using the
internet for communication purposes their sexting behaviour have emerged as an area
of enquiry. Social scientists have started to gather evidence on young adults’ use of the
internet for sexual education and entertainment (Arnett, 2014; Benotsch, Snipes,
Martin, & Bull, 2012; Boies, 2002).
Researches focusing on sexting behaviour always refer to internet use (including
text, audio, graphic files) for any activity that involves sexuality for the purposes of
recreation, entertainment, exploration, support, education, commerce, and/or seeking
out sexual or romantic partners (Cooper & Griffin-Shelley, 2012). These distinctions
were not clearly made in the first landmark study of sexting behaviour pertaining to
entertainment-related online sexual behaviour in adults (Cooper & Griffin-Shelley,
2012). More recent studies have differentiated, in samples of university students
relating to establishing and maintaining relationships, obtaining information related to
sexuality, and sexual arousal and entertainment (Boies, 2002). In order to bridge the
gaps in the studies presented above, the present study concentrates on personological
factors and sexting behaviour among in-school adolescents: implications for counselling
psychology.
Statement of Problem
Text messaging is the most popular form of electronic communication among
adolescents. Approximately 1 in 3 teens send over 100 text messages a day. According
to the Pew Center, 75 percent of 12-17 year-olds own cell phones compared to 45
International Journal of Educational Studies
Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015
19
percent in 2004 (Judge, 2011). Recently adolescents have begun to use their cell
phones to engage in sexual exploration with one another. This new occurrence has
now been labeled as sexting. This new phenomenon includes writing sexually explicit
messages, taking provocative pictures of themselves or other individuals, and
transmitting these messages using technology. It can also be considered sexting when
individuals receive sexual messages or images. The institution in which sexting occurs
is the media, specifically through the use of cell phones.
Due to “sexting” being a relatively new phenomenon, there is a dearth of
information on the topic. Yet, several studies have been conducted that show the
increasing number of young individuals who are engaging in this risky behavior. A
recent study compiled in 2009 by the Associated Press and by television sampled 1,247
youths aged 14 to 24 years old. They found that fifty percent of the participants have
been the victims of some type of digital abuse. Thirty percent of these individuals had
either sent or received nude photos on their cell phone or online. Another alarming
statistic showed that 61% of those who had sent a naked photo or video of themselves
were pressured into doing so by someone else (Associated Press, 2009).
However, in cases of sexting many harmful consequences are often involved.
Sending or receiving sexually explicit messages or images can result in cyberbullying,
social humiliation, and psychological distress. Nude photos of a minor found on an
individual’s personal electronic device can lead to child pornography charges, and once
convicted of these charges, in most states, the individual is also required to register as
a sex offender. Unfortunately many adolescents are unaware of these consequences
and continue to participate in sexting. As such, the present study concentrates on
personological factors and sexting behaviour among in-school adolescents: implications
for counselling psychology.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate the presents study concentrates on
personological factors and sexting behaviour among in-school adolescents: implications
for counselling psychology. Specifically the following are the main purpose of the study is
to;
1.
Determine the relationship among the independent variables (self esteem and social
networking utilization) and sexting behavior among adolescents
2.
Examine the joint effect of independent variables (self esteem and social networking
utilization) on sexting behavior among adolescents
3.
Find out the relative effect of independent variables (self esteem and social
networking utilization) on sexting behavior among adolescents
Research Questions
1.
What is the significant relationship among the independent variables (self esteem and
social networking utilization) and sexting behavior among adolescents?
Adeyemi Adetola O. (Ph.D) & Muraina K. Olanrewaju (Med)
20
2.
What is the joint effect of independent variables (self esteem and social networking
utilization) on sexting behavior among adolescents?
3.
What is the relative effect of independent variables (self esteem and social
networking utilization) on sexting behavior among adolescents?
Significance of the Study
This study will be highly important to the Government at all levels, the parents,
community developers, decision and policy makers as well as other social workers and
welfare agencies in the country. However, this study will help the guardians, teachers,
and parents to know and ascertain the effects of self esteem and social networking
utilization on sexting behavior among adolescents and help immensely in solving the
problems of sexting behavior among adolescents.
The study will provide an insight understanding for the parents/guardians to
know the effects of self esteem and social networking utilization on sexting behavior
among adolescents in the society. This will help the parents to adopt effective ways of
reducing or managing sexting behaviour of adolescents in the society. The study of this
type will further enable the teachers and stakeholders in the school to discover the
effects of self esteem and social networking utilization on sexting behavior among
adolescents. This will help in the proper guidance and counseling of the adolescents at
this level.
This will however enable the adolescents in the school to discover the effects of
their esteem and social networking utilization on sexting behaviour and general goal
accomplishment. This will help them to develop efficient attitude towards improving
their self esteem and thereby reduce the prevalence of sexting behavior in the school
system.
The study of this type will further enable the school counseling/youth and
adolescent psychologists to discover the effects of self esteem and social networking
utilization on sexting behavior among adolescents and this will help in the selection of
counseling/psychological approach to the problem of sexting behaviour both in the
school as well as in the society. The personological factors and sexting behaviour among
in-school adolescents will enable the government and the general public to be aware of
these factors and work towards proffering lasting solutions to sexting behaviour in the
country.
It is important to note that findings in this study will also serve as a source of
reference for other researchers who may want to conduct the same or similar study in
other parts of the country. The study of this type will further create a gap from which
other researches could be anchored.
Methodology
Research Design
The study adopted descriptive survey design of ex-post-facto type. It is going to
ascertain the effects of the independent variable (self esteem and social networking
International Journal of Educational Studies
Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015
21
utilization) on the dependent variable (sexting behaviour) among adolescents without
manipulations. However, it is carefully observed and recorded information as it naturally
occurred at the time the study was conducted.
Population
The population for the study comprises of in-school adolescents in Oyo State,
Nigeria.
Sample and Sampling Procedures
Multi-stage sampling technique was used in this study. Ten (10) Local Government
Areas (LGAs) were selected through simple random sampling technique out of thirty
three (33) LGAs that constitute Oyo State, Nigeria. In each randomly selected LGAs,
five (5) secondary schools were selected. Also, in each randomly selected school,
twenty (20) adolescents were selected. On the whole, one thousand (1000) participants
were selected in the study. However, the selected adolescents consist of both male and
female.
Instrumentations
The instrument consists of section A to D. Section A consists of demographic
data of the respondents such as sex, age, qualifications among others. Section B
consists of items that measure self esteem of participants. Self esteem scale developed
by Rosenberg (1993)
was adopted to measure the self esteem of participants. This
instrument consists of ten (10) items and had an internal consistency between alpha
.75 and .90. Section C consists of items that measure sexting behavior of the
respondents. Sexting behaviour scale developed by Faniyi (2011)
was adopted with
twenty three (23) items responses anchored base on the four points scale and had
Cronbach alpha of .85. The response format were strongly agreed, agreed, disagreed
and strongly disagreed.
Validity and Reliability of Research Instrument
The validity of the instruments was determined by giving them to colleagues
and other experts in the field of psychology and other department for criticism,
suggestions and corrections in order to determine whether the instrument actually
effective to measure what they were supposed to measure. The test re-test reliability
co-efficient was used for the study. The instruments were pilot tested on 30
respondents which were not included in the scope of the study to ascertain the
reliability of the instrument. After the test re-test, the instruments were scrutinized
and necessary modifications were made before final administration. The reliability co-
efficient of the instrument was 0.89.
Adeyemi Adetola O. (Ph.D) & Muraina K. Olanrewaju (Med)
22
Procedure for Data Collection
The instruments were administered to the participants on the day approved by
the school authorities for the exercise. The researcher was assisted by research
assistant in the administration and collection of the instruments. In each of selected
institutions, the administration and collection of instrument was done on the same day
of administration. On the whole data collection lasted for approximately three weeks.
Out of one thousand (1000) questionnaires distributed only nine hundred and sixty nine
(969) were properly filled and used for the study.
Data Analysis
The Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) and Multiple Regression
statistical analysis were used to analyse the data. The Pearson Product Moment
Correlation (PPMC) was used to establish the relationship among the variables while
the Multiple Regression was used to establish the joint and relative contributions of the
independent variables on the dependent variable in the study.
Results and Discussion
Three research questions were raised and answered. The data were analyzed
using Pearson Moment Correlation Coefficient (PMCC) and Multiple Regression
statistical method. The results are presented below:
Research Question One: What is the significant relationship among the
independent variables (self esteem and social networking utilization) and sexting
behavior among adolescents?
Table1: Descriptive statistics and Inter-correlations among the variables
Variables
N
Mean
SD
1
2
3
Sexting Behavior
969
43.70
34.94
1.00
Self Esteem
969
22.55
14.10
.640
1.00
Social Networking
969
29.85
16.00
.659
.779
1.00
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Table 1 contains descriptive statistics and inter-correlations among the study
variables. As shown in the table 1, adolescents’ sexting behavior is significantly
correlated with: (1) self esteem (r = .640; p<.05) and (2) social networking utilization
(r= .659; p<.05). There were also significant correlations among the independent
variables. In agreement with this finding, studies have shown that individuals with high
self-esteem and social networking utilization are more likely to involve in sexting than
those with low self-esteem (Abel, Adams, & Stevenson, 2014; Ethier, 2006). In
contrast, some studies have shown that persons with high self-esteem also were less
likely to practice sexting (Hollar & Snizek, 1996; Rosenthal, Moore, & Flynn, 1991).
Cyber technologies are also used by adolescents to access and exchange information,
International Journal of Educational Studies
Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015
23
to communicate and to seek entertainment. Mobile phones and social network sites
are media viewed by adolescents as essential and convenient means to connect with,
converse and meet new friends.
Research Question Two: What is the joint effect of independent variables (self
esteem and social networking utilization) on sexting behavior among adolescents?
Table 2: Multiple Regression Analysis on Sexting Behavior among Adolescents Data
Multiple R(adjusted)=.657
Multiple R
2
(adjusted)=.631
Standard error of estimate= 5.31
Analysis of variance
Sum of square (SS)
DF
Mean square
F
Regression
9588.87
2
4794.44
77.21
Residual
59987.98
966
62.10
Total
69576.85
968
The table 2 shows that the independent variables (self esteem and social
networking utilization) when pulled together have significant contribution to the
sexting behavior among adolescents. The value of R (adjusted) =.667 and R
2
(adjusted)
=.631. The analysis of variance performed on the multiple regressions yielded an F-
ratio value of 77.21 and was found to be significant at 0.05 level. In line with this
finding, Ellison, Steinfeld, and Lampe (2006) suggested one reason people are using
social network sites is to increase sexting behaviour. Sexting behaviour is the
resources available to an individual through social interaction (Lin, 2001). There are
two types of sexting behaviour called bridging and bonding sexting behaviour (Putnam,
2000). Social network research has focused mostly on bridging, the formation of weak
connections between individuals who may provide information and resources, but
unlikely to provide emotional support (Granovetter, 2012). Also, Self-esteem has long
been considered an essential component of good mental health. It is a widely used
concept both in popular language and in psychology. It refers to an individual’s sense of
his or her value or worth, or the extent to which a person values, approves of,
appreciates, prizes, or likes him or herself (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991).
Research Question Three: What is the relative effect of independent variables
(self esteem and social networking utilization) on sexting behavior among adolescents?
Adeyemi Adetola O. (Ph.D) & Muraina K. Olanrewaju (Med)
24
Table 3: Relative Contribution of Independent Variables to the Prediction
Unstandardized
coefficients
Standardized
coefficients
T
P
Model
B
Standard error Beta
Constant
20.246
1.335
5.51 P<0.05
Self Esteem
.615
.041
.247
1.62
P<0.05
Social Networking
.345
.056
.385
9.43
P<0.05
The table 3 above shows that each of the independent variables made a significant
contribution to the prediction of sexting behavior among adolescents. In term of
magnitude of contribution, social networking utilization made the most significant
contribution (Beta= .385; t= 9.43; P<0.05) to the prediction follow by self esteem
(Beta= .247; t= 1.62; P<0.05). In collaboration with this finding, Oattes and Offman
(2007) conducted research on college students to predict the ability to communicate
about satisfying sexting behavior with a partner. The study also reported that both self-
esteem and sexual self-esteem were predictors of sexting; however, sexual self-esteem
was a unique predictor over and above self-esteem (Oattes and Offman, 2007).
Helliwell and Putnam (2004) showed that social networking utilization and sexting
behaviour have a strong positive relationship. Individuals who have more social
resources available to them are likely to indicate higher sexting behaviour. Some of the
main reasons people use social network sites are to keep in contact with old friends,
and maintain or strengthen relationships with current friends. A strong relationship
was found between intensity of Facebook use and perceived bridging of sexting
behaviour. Social networking utilization involves the level at which the students have
access and explore the internet tools and facilities to gain an ultimate access the
internet divide (i.e, world wide web) on the computer. The reason for the focus on
bridging sexting behaviour is because it is believed that social network structure
facilitates the formation and maintenance of these weak type connections (Donath &
Boyd, 2014).
Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusion
Around the world more than eighty percent of our youths are spending a large
amount of time on internet. For the simple reason that the internet was introduced at
a very young age into their lives, the new generation of children and adolescents
became the first groups to use internet on a large scale and among the first to begin
experiencing problems associated with excessive internet use. Engaging in various
forms of social media is a routine activity that has shown to benefit children and
adolescents by enhancing communication, social connection and even technical skills.
The Internet is a research site for testing theories of technology diffusion and media
effects capable of integrating modes of communication and terms of content. Social
media sites such as Facebook and myspace offer multiple daily opportunities for
International Journal of Educational Studies
Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015
25
connecting with friends, classmates and people with shared interest. Base on the
findings of this study, persistent sexting behaviour of Nigerian adolescents in the the
school system need not to continue indefinitely. There is hope that with the
improvement of some factors (e.g. self esteem and social networking utilization among
others) the situation can be changed for the better. The study discovered that some of
these factors influence the sexting behaviour of adolescents. By and large, self esteem
and social networking utilization among others has a great influence on the
adolescents’ sexting behavior.
Recommendations
1.
The management and directors of schools should endeavour to provide conducive
environment for the staff and the students in the school. This will help to ensure an
improvement in the level of sexting behavior among students in the school.
2.
Parents and guardians are to be enlightened on how to improve on their
monitoring towards the students’ peer selection, because the control in the peer
pressure would influence the sexting behavior among the students.
3.
Counseling psychologists and computer professional should intensify their effort to
organize seminars/conferences on these factors (such as self esteem and social
networking utilization among others) as they significantly influence the sexting
behavior among students.
4.
The management and directors of schools should endeavour to consider the
stability of the students and ability to work independently with little or no
supervision in the school; this will help to control the students from being
influenced negatively towards sexting habit.
5.
Curriculum planners should try as much as possible to include in the scheme
effective inculcation of sex education for the students. This will help to reduce the
level of their involvement in negative online dating and sexting behaviour in the
country.
6.
Religious organization leaders are to fuse into their teaching and topics on sex
education and the dangers of adolescents to indulge in casual sexual and sexting
behaviour and other related behaviour.
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