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B E H A V I O R A L E C O N O M I C S
Overview of the Book
In what follows, we review different topic areas of behavioral economics to place
chapters of the book into context. The book is organized so that early chapters
discuss basic topics such as decision making under risk and intertemporal choice,
while later chapters provide applications of these ideas.
Basic Topics
REFERENCE-DEPENDENCE AND LOSS-AVERSION
In classical consumer theory, preferences among different commodity bundles are
assumed to be invariant with respect to an individual’s current endowment or con-
sumption. Contrary to this simplifying assumption, diverse forms of evidence
point to a dependence of preferences on one’s reference point (typically the cur-
rent endowment). Specifically, people seem to dislike losing commodities from
their consumption bundle much more than they like gaining other commodities.
This can be expressed graphically as a kink in indifference curves at the current
endowment point (Knetsch 1992; Tversky and Kahneman 1991).
In the simplest study showing reference-dependence, Knetsch (1992) endowed
some subjects randomly with a mug, while others received a pen.
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Both groups
were allowed to switch their good for the other at a minimal transaction cost, by
merely handing it to the experimenter. If preferences are independent of random
endowments, the fractions of subjects swapping their mug for a pen and the frac-
tion swapping their pen for a mug should add to roughly one. In fact, 22% of sub-
jects traded. The fact that so few chose to trade implies an exaggerated preference
for the good in their endowment, or a distaste for losing what they have.
A seminal demonstration of an “endowment effect” in buying and selling
prices was conducted by Kahneman et al. (1990). They endowed half of the sub-
jects in a group with coffee mugs. Those who had mugs were asked the lowest
price at which they would sell. Those who did not get mugs were asked how
much they would pay. There should be essentially no difference between selling
and buying prices. In fact, the median selling price was $5.79 and the median
buying price was $2.25, a ratio of more than two: one which has been repeatedly
replicated. Although calibrationally entirely implausible, some economists were
concerned that the results could be driven by “wealth effects”—those given mugs
are wealthier than those not given mugs, and this might make them value mugs
more and money less. But in a different study reported in the same paper, the sell-
ing prices of one group were compared to the “choosing” prices of another: For a
series of money amounts, subjects chose whether they would prefer to have a mug
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Note that any possible information value from being given one good rather than the other is min-
imized because the endowments are random, and subjects knew that half of the others received the
good that they didn’t have.
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