199
T I M E D I S C O U N T I N G
to choose between 100 florins (a Netherlands unit of currency) immediately and
110 florins in one month, and another group to choose between a 50% chance of
100 florins immediately and a 50% chance of 110 florins in one month. While
82% preferred the smaller immediate reward when both rewards were certain,
only 39% preferred the smaller immediate reward when both rewards were uncer-
tain.
31
Also, Albrecht and Weber (1996) found that the present value of a future
lottery (for example, a 50% chance of receiving 250 deutsche marks) tended to
exceed the present value of its certainty equivalent.
INFLATION
The standard approach assumes that, for instance, $100 now and $100 in 5 years
generate the same level of utility at the times they are received. However, inflation
provides a reason to devalue future monetary outcomes, because in the presence
of inflation, $100 worth of consumption now is more valuable than $100 worth of
consumption in 5 years. This confound creates an upward bias in estimates of the
discount rate, and this bias will be more or less pronounced depending on sub-
jects’ experiences with and expectations about inflation.
EXPECTATIONS OF CHANGING UTILITY
A reward of $100 now might also generate more utility than the same amount five
years hence because a person expects to have a larger baseline consumption level
in 5 years (for example, due to increased wealth). As a result, the marginal utility
generated by an additional $100 of consumption in 5 years may be less than the
marginal utility generated by an additional $100 of consumption now. Like infla-
tion, this confound creates an upward bias in estimates of the discount rate.
HABIT FORMATION, ANTICIPATORY UTILITY, AND VISCERAL INFLUENCES
To the extent that the discount rate is meant to reflect
only
time preference, and
not the confluence of
all
factors influencing intertemporal choice, the modifica-
tions to the instantaneous utility function discussed in the previous section repre-
sent additional biasing factors, because they are typically not accounted for when
the discount rate is imputed. For instance, if anticipatory utility motivates one to
delay consumption more than one otherwise would, the imputed discount rate
will be lower than the true degree of time preference. If a person prefers an in-
creasing consumption profile due to habit formation, the discount rate will be bi-
ased downward. Finally, if the prospect of an immediate reward momentarily
stimulates visceral factors that temporarily increase the person’s valuation of the
proximate reward, the discount rate could be biased upward.
32
31
This result cannot be explained by a magnitude effect on the expected amounts, because 50% of
a reward has a
smaller
expected value, and, according to the magnitude effect, should be discounted
more, not less.
32
Whether visceral factors should be considered a determinant of time preference or a confounding
factor in its estimation is unclear. If visceral factors increase the attractiveness of an immediate reward
without affecting its experienced enjoyment (if they increase wanting but not liking), they are proba-
bly best viewed as a legitimate determinant of time preference. If, however, visceral factors alter the
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