implications for macroeconomic behavior. Rigidities
are attributed to a vague
exogeneous force like “menu costs,” shorthand for some unspecified process that
creates rigidity. Behavioral economics suggests ideas as to where rigidity comes
from. Loss-aversion among consumers and workers, perhaps inflamed by work-
ers’ concern for fairness, can cause nominal rigidity but are rarely discussed in the
modern literature (though see Bewley 1998; Blinder et al. 1998).
An important model in macroeconomics is the life-cycle model of savings (or
permanent income hypothesis). This theory assumes that people make a guess
about their lifetime earnings profile and plan their savings and consumption to
smooth consumption across their lives. The theory
is normatively appealing if
consumption in each period has diminishing marginal utility, and if preferences
for consumptions streams are time-separable (i.e., overall utility is the sum of the
discounted utility of consumption in each separate period). The theory also as-
sumes that people lump together different types of income when they guess how
much money they’ll have (i.e., different sources of wealth are fungible).
Shefrin and Thaler (1992 and in this volume) present a “behavioral life cycle”
theory of savings in which different sources of income are kept track of in differ-
ent mental accounts. Mental accounts can reflect natural perceptual or cognitive
divisions. For example, it is possible to add up your paycheck and the dollar value
of your frequent flyer miles, but it is simply unnatural (and a little arbitrary) to do
so, like measuring the capacity of your refrigerator by how many calories it holds.
Mental accounts can also be bright-line devices to avoid temptation: Allow your-
self to head to Vegas after cashing an IRS refund check, but not after raiding the
childrens’ college fund or taking out a housing equity loan. Shefrin and Thaler
show that plausible assumptions about mental accounting for wealth predict im-
portant deviations from life-cycle savings theory. For example,
the measured
marginal propensities to consume (MPC) an extra dollar of income from different
income categories are very different. The MPC from housing equity is extremely
low (people don’t see their house as a pile of cash). On the other hand, the MPC
from windfall gains is substantial and often close to 1 (the MPC from one-time
tax cuts is around 1/3–2/3).
It is important to note that many key implications of the life-cycle hypothesis
have
never
been well supported empirically (e.g., consumption is far more closely
related to current income than it should be, according to theory). Admittedly,
since empirical tests of the life-cycle model involve many auxiliary assumptions,
there are many possible culprits if the theory’s predictions are not corroborated.
Predictions can be improved by introducing utility functions with “habit forma-
tion,” in which utility in a current period depends on the reference point of previ-
ous consumption, and by more carefully accounting for uncertainty about future
income (see Carroll 2000). Mental accounting is only one of several behavioral
approaches that may prove useful.
An important concept in Keynesian economics is “money illusion”—the ten-
dency to make decisions based on nominal quantities rather than converting those
figures into “real” terms by adjusting for inflation. Money illusion seems to be
pervasive in some domains. In one study (Baker, Gibbs, and Holmstrom 1994) of
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