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B E H A V I O R A L E C O N O M I C S
they considered different types of firm behavior to be. In a typical question, they
asked people whether a hardware store that raised the price of a snow shovel after
a snowstorm was behaving fairly or not. (People thought the store was unfair.)
Their results can be neatly summarized by a “dual-entitlement” hypothesis: Pre-
vious transactions establish a reference level of consumer surplus and producer
profit. Both sides are “entitled” to these levels of profit, and so price changes that
threaten the entitlement are considered unfair.
Raising snow-shovel prices after a snowstorm, for example, reduces consumer
surplus and is considered unfair. But when the cost of a firm’s inputs rises, sub-
jects said it was fair to raise prices—because
not
raising prices would reduce the
firm’s profit (compared to the reference profit). The Kahneman et al. framework
has found surprisingly little application, despite the everyday observation that
firms do not change prices and wages as frequently as standard theory suggests.
For example, when the fourth Harry Potter book was released in summer 2000,
most stores were allocated a small number of books that were sold in advance.
Why not raise prices, or auction the books off? Everyday folks, like the subjects
in Kahneman et al.’s surveys, find actions that exploit excess demand to be outra-
geous. Concerned about customer goodwill, firms limit such price increases.
An open question is whether consumers are really willing to express outrage at
unfairness by boycotts and other real sacrifices (Engelmann and Tyran [2002] find
that boycotts are common in the lab). A little threat of boycott also may go a long
way toward disciplining firms. (In the ultimatum game, for example, many sub-
jects
do
accept low offers; but the fraction that reject such offers is high enough
that it pays for proposers to offer almost half.) Furthermore, even if consumer boy-
cotts rarely work, offended consumers are often able to affect firm behavior by
galvanizing media attention or provoking legislation. For example, “scalping”
tickets for popular sports and entertainment events (reselling them at a large pre-
mium over the printed ticket price) is constrained by law in most states. Some
states have “anti-gouging” laws penalizing sellers who take advantage of shortages
of water, fuel, and other necessities by raising prices after natural disasters. A few
years ago, responding to public anger at rising CEO salaries when the economy
was being restructured through downsizing and when many workers lost their jobs,
Congress passed a law prohibiting firms from deducting a CEO salary, for tax pur-
poses, beyond $1 million a year (Rose and Wolfram 2000). Explaining where these
laws and regulations come from is one example of how behavioral economics
might be used to expand the scope of law and economics (see Sunstein 2000).
BEHAVIORAL GAME THEORY
Game theory has rapidly become an important foundation for many areas of
economic theory, such as bargaining in decentralized markets, contracting and
organizational structure, as well as political economy (e.g., candidates choosing
platforms and congressional behavior). The descriptive accuracy of game theory
in these applications can be questioned because equilibrium predictions often
assume sophisticated strategic reasoning, and direct field tests are difficult. As a
result, there have been many experiments that test game-theoretic predictions.
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