Fifty-Year Anniversary of the Soviet Armed Forces, The Soviet Historical Encyclopedia, volumes
of Directives of the Front Command of the Red Army) to compile detailed nominal rosters of
highly ranked Jewish commanders (exclusively Jewish ones) in the Red Army during the period
from the Civil War up to the aftermath of Second World War.
Let’s skim through the pages allocated to the Civil War. This is a very extensive roster; it
begins with the Revvoyensoviet, where Abramovich lists L. Trotsky, E. Sklyansky, A.
Rosengoltz, and Y. Drabkin-Gusev. Trotsky ordered the establishment of fronts with
headquarters, and formation of new armies, and Jews were present in almost all the
Revvoyensoviets of the fronts and armies. (Abramovich lists the most prominent individuals: D.
Vayman, E. Pyatnitsky, L. Glezarov, L. Pechyorsky, I. Slavin, M. Lisovsky, G. Bitker, Bela Kun,
Brilliant-Sokolnikov, I. Khodorovsky).
Earlier, at the onset of the Civil War, the Extraordinary Command Staff of the Petrograd
Military District was headed by Uritsky, and among the members of the Petrograd Committee of
Revolutionary Defense were Sverdlov (the chairman), Volodarsky, Drabkin-Gusev, Ya. Fishman
(a leftist Socialist Revolutionary) and G. Chudnovsky. In May 1918 there were two Jews among
the eleven commissars of military districts: E. Yaroslavsky-Gubelman (Moscow District) and S.
Nakhimson (Yaroslavsky District).
During the war, several Jews were in charge of armies: M. Lashevich was in charge of
the 3rd — and later, of the 7th Army of Eastern Front; V. Lazarevich was in charge of the 3rd
Army of the Western Front, G. Sokolnikov led the 8th Army of the Southern Front, N. Sorkin –
the 9th, and I. Yakir – the 14th Army. Abramovich painstakingly lists numerous Jewish heads of
staff and members of the Revvoyensoviets in each of the twenty armies; then the commanders,
heads of staff and military commissars of divisions (the list of the latter, i.e., those in charge of
the ideological branch of command, was three-times longer than the list of Jewish commanders
of divisions). In this manner Abramovich describes brigades, regiments and separate
detachments. He lists Jewish heads of political administrations and revolutionary military
tribunals at all levels, noting that “an especially large percentage of Jews can be found among
political officers at all levels of the Red Army.”
Jews played an important role in the provision and supply services. Let’s name some of
them. Jews occupied important positions in military medicine as well: heads of sanitary
administrations of the fronts and armies, senior doctors of units and bodies of troopa. Many Jews
— commanders of large units and detachments — were distinguished for their courage, heroism
and generalship but due to the synoptic character of this chapter we cannot provide detailed
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descriptions of the accomplishments of Jewish Red Army soldiers, commanders and political
officers. (Meticulously listing the commanders of armies, the researcher misses another Jew,
Tikhon Khvesin, who happened to be in charge of the 4th Army of the Eastern Front, then — of
the 8th Army of the Southern Front, and later of the 1st Army of the Turkestan Front.)
The Russian Jewish Encyclopedia provides additional information about some
commanders. [Here I would like to commend this encyclopedia (1994), for in our new free times
its authors performed an honest choice — writing frankly about everything, including less than
honorable things.]
Drabkin-Gusev became the Head of Political Administration of the Red Army and the
Chief of the entire Red Army in 1921. Later he was the head of IstPart (Commission on the
History of October Revolution and Bolshevist Party) and a big figure in the Comintern, and was
buried in the Kremlin wall in Moscow.
Mikhail Gaskovich-Lashkevich was a member of many revvoyensoviets, and later he was
in charge of the Siberian Military District, and even later — the First Deputy Chairman of the
Revvoyensoviet of the USSR (yet he was buried merely on the Field of Mars in St. Petersburg).
Israel Razgon was the military commissar of the Headquarters of Petrograd Military
District and participated in the suppression of the Kronstadt Uprising; later, he was in charge of
the Red Army of Bukhara, suppressing the uprising in Central Asia; still later he worked in the
Headquarters of the Black See Fleet. Boris Goldberg was Military Commissar of the Tomskaya
Guberniya, later of the Permskaya Guberniya, still later of the Privolzhskiy Military District, and
even later he was in charge of the Reserve Army and was acknowledged as one of the founders
of Soviet Civil Aviation.
Modest Rubenstein was Deputy Head of the Revvoyensoviet of the Special Army, and
later he was head of political administration of an army group. Boris Hippo was the Head of
Political Administration of the Black Sea Fleet. (Later he worked in the political administrations
of the Baltic Sea Fleet, the Turkestan Front, was the Head of Political Administration of the
Central-Asian Military District, and later of the Caucasian Army.)
Michail Landa was a head of the political division of an army, later — Deputy Head of
Political Administration of the entire Red Army, and still later Head of Political Administration
of the Byelorussian and then of the Siberian Military Districts. Lev Berlin was Commissar of the
Volga Military Flotilla and later worked in the Political Administration of the Crimean Army and
still later in that of the Baltic Fleet.
Yet how many outstanding characters acted at lower levels?
Boris Skundin, previously a lowly apprentice of clockmaker Sverdlov, Sr., successively
evolved into the military commissar of a division, commissar of army headquarters, political
inspector of front, and, finally, into Deputy Head of Political Administration of the 1st Cavalry
Army.
Avenir Khanukaev was commander of a guerilla band who later was tried before the
revolutionary tribunal for crimes during the capture of Ashgabat and acquitted, and in the same
year of 1919 was made into political plenipotentiary of the TurkCommission of the All-Russian
Central Executive Committee of the Soviet of People’s Commissars on Kashgar, Bukhara and
Khiva.
Moses Vinnitsky (“Mishka-Yaponchik”) was a member of the Jewish militia squad in
Odessa 1905, and later a gang-leader; he was freed from a hard labor camp by the February
Revolution and became a commander of a Jewish fighting brigade in Odessa, simultaneously
managing the entire criminal underworld of Odessa. In 1919 he was a commander of a special
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battalion and later he was in charge of an infantry regiment in the Red Army. His unit was
composed of anarchists and criminals. In the end he was shot by his own side.
Military commissar Isaiah Tzalkovich was in command of a composite company of the
Red cadets during the suppression of the Kronstadt Uprising.
We can see extraordinary Jewish women in the higher Bolshevik ranks as well. Nadezda
Ostrovskaya rose from the Head of Gubkom [Party Committee of a Guberniya, the highest
executive authority in a guberniya] of Vladimir Guberniya to the post of the Head of Political
Administration of the entire 10th Army. Revekka Plastinina headed Gubrevkom and later the
Gubkom of Archangel Guberniya.
Is it proper to mention here Cecilia Zelikson-Bobrovskaya, who was a seamstress in her
youth, and became the Head of the Military Department of the Moscow Committee of the All-
Russian Communist Party of Bolsheviks? Or take one of the Furies of the Revolution Eugenia
Bosh (or her sister Elena Rozmirovich)?
Or another thing — the Soviets used the phrase “Corps of Red Cossacks.” Yet those were
not Cossacks who embraced communist ideology but plain bandits (who occasionally disguised
themselves as Whites for deception.) Those “Cossack Corps” were made of all nationalities from
Romanians to Chinese with a full-blown Latvian cavalry regiment. A Russian, Vitaly Primakov,
was in command and its Political Department was headed by I. I. Minz (by Isaac Greenberg in
the Second Division) and S. Turovskiy was head of the Headquarters. A. Shilman was the head
of operative section of the staff, S. Davidson managed the division newspaper, and Ya. Rubinov
was in charge of the administrative section of the staff.
Since we have begun particularizing, let’s look at the famous leaders of the Red Army, at
those never-fading names: Vladimir Antonov-Ovseyenko, Vasily Blucher, Semyon Budyonny,
Klim Voroshilov, Boris Dumenko, Pavel Dybenko, Aleksa Dundich, Dmitry Zhloba, Vasily
Kikvidze, Epifan Kovtukh, Grigory Kotovsky, Philip Mironov, Mikhail Muravyov, Vitaly
Primakov, Ivan Sorokin, Semyon Timoshenko, Mikhail Tukhachevsky, Ieronim Uborevich,
Mikhail Frunze, Vasily Chapaev, Yefim Shchadenko, Nikolay Shchors. Why, couldn’t they pull
it off without Jews?
Or take hundreds and thousands of Russian generals and officers of the former Imperial
Army, who served in the Red Army, though not in the political sections (they were not invited
there), but in other significant posts. True, they had a commissar with a gun behind them, and
many served on pain of execution of their hostage families especially in case of military failures.
Yet they gave an invaluable advantage to the Reds, which actually might have been crucial for
the eventual victory of Bolsheviks. Why, just about half of the officers of the General Staff
worked for the Bolsheviks.
And we should not forget that initial and fatal susceptibility of many Russian peasants
(by no means all of them, of course) to Bolshevik propaganda. Shulgin flatly noted: “Death to
the Bourgeois was so successful in Russia because the smell of blood inebriates, alas, so many
Russians; and they get into a frenzy like wild beasts.”
Yet let’s avoid going into another unreasonable extreme, such as the following: “The
most zealous executioners in Cheka were not at all the notorious Jews, but the recent minions of
the throne, generals and officers.” As though they would be tolerated in there, in the Cheka!
They were invited there with the only one purpose — to be executed. Yet why such a quick
temper? Those Jews, who worked in the Cheka, were, of course, not the “notorious Jews,” but
quite young and committed ones, with revolutionary garbage filling their heads. And I deem that
they served not as executioners but mostly as interrogators.
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The Cheka (“Extraordinary Commission,” Che-Ka) was established in December 1917. It
instantly gained strength and by the beginning of 1918 it was already filling the entire populace
with mortal fear. In fact, it was the Cheka that started the Red Terror long before its beginning
was officially announced on September 5, 1918. The Cheka practiced terror from the moment of
its inception and continued it long after the end of the Civil War. By January of 1918, the Cheka
was enforcing the death penalty on the spot without investigation and trial. Then the country saw
the snatching of hundreds and later thousands of absolutely innocent hostages, their mass
executions at night or mass drowning in whole barges. Historian S. P. Melgunov, who himself
happened to experience perilous incarceration in Cheka prisons, unforgettably reflected upon the
whole epic story of the Red Terror in his famous book Red Terror in Russia 1918-1923.
There was not a single town or a district without an office of the omnipotent All-Russian
Extraordinary Commission [that is, the Cheka], which from now on becomes the main nerve of
state governance and absorbs the last vestiges of law; there was not a single place in the RSFSR
[Russian Federation] without ongoing executions; a single verbal order of one man
(Dzerzhinsky) doomed to immediate death many thousand people.
And even when investigation took place, the Chekists [members of the Cheka] followed
their official instructions: “Do not look for evidence incriminating a suspect in hostile speech or
action against Soviet power. The very first question you should ask him is about the social class
he belongs to, and what is his descent, upbringing, education and profession. It is these questions
that should determine the suspect’s fate.” (The words of M. Latsis in the bulletin Red Terror on
November 1, 1918 and in Pravda on December 25, 1918). Melgunov notes: “Latsis was not
original here, he simply rephrased the words of Robespierre in Convent about the mass terror:
‘To execute the enemies of the Fatherland, it is sufficient to establish their identities. Not
punishment but elimination is required´.” Directives from the center are picked up and
distributed all over Russia by the Cheka Weekly and Melgunov cites the periodical profusely:
“Red Sword is published in Kiev … in an editorial by Lev Krainy we read: ‘Old foundations of
morality and humanity invented by the bourgeoisie do not and cannot exist for us.’ A certain
Schwartz follows: “The proclaimed Red Terror should be implemented in a proletarian way. If
physical extermination of all servants of Czarism and capitalism is the prerequisite for the
establishment of the worldwide dictatorship of proletariat, then it wouldn’t stop us.”
It was a targeted, pre-designed and long-term Terror. Melgunov also provides estimates
of the body count of that “unheard-of swing of murders.” (precise numbers were practically not
available then). Yet I suppose these horrors pale into insignificance with respect to the number of
victims if compared to what happened in the South after the end of the Civil War. Denikin’s [the
general of the White army in command of the South Russian front] rule was crumbling. New
power was ascending, accompanied by a bloody reign of vengeful terror, of mere retaliation. At
this point it was not a civil war, it was physical liquidation of a former adversary. There were
waves and waves of raids, searches, new raids and arrests. Entire wards of prisoners are escorted
out and every last man is executed. Because of the large number of victims, a machine-gun is
used; they execute 15-16-year-old children and 60-year-old elders.
The following is a quote from a Cheka announcement in the Kuban region: “Cossack
villages and settlements, which give shelter to Whites and Greens [Ukrainian nationalists], will
be destroyed, the entire adult population — executed, and all property — confiscated.” After
Wrangel [another White general] left, Crimea was dubbed the ‘All-Russian Cemetery´. Different
estimates suggest the number of murdered as between 120,000 and 150,000. In Sevastopol
people were not just shot but hanged, hanged by dozens and even by hundreds. Nakhimov
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Prospect [a major street] was lined with the corpses of the hanged. People were arrested on the
streets and hastily executed without trial. Terror in the Crimea continued through 1921.
But no matter how deep we dig into the history of Cheka, special departments, special
squads, too many deeds and names will remain unknown, covered by the decomposed remnants
of witnesses and the ash of incinerated Bolshevik documents. Yet even the remaining documents
are overly eloquent. Here is a copy of a secret extract from the protocol of a meeting of the
Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the All-Russian Communist Party of Bolsheviks
dated April 18, 1919. It was obtained from the Trotsky archive at Columbia University.
“Attended cc.[comrades] Lenin, Krestinsky, Stalin, Trotsky.
“Heard: Statement of Comrade Trotsky that Jews and Latvians constitute a huge
percentage of officials in the front-line Chekas, front-line and rear area executive commissions
and central Soviet agencies, and that their percentage in the front-line troops is relatively small,
and that because of this, strong chauvinist agitation is being conducted among the Red Army
soldiers with a certain success, and that according to Comrade Trotsky’s opinion, it is necessary
to redistribute the Party personnel to achieve a more uniform representation of officials of all
nationalities between front-line and rear areas.
“Decided: To propose cc. Trotsky and Smilga to draft an appropriate Directive of the
Central Committee to the commissions responsible for the allotment of cadres between the
central and local Soviet organizations and the front.”
Yet it is hard to believe that the meeting produced the intended effect. A contemporary
researcher, the first who approached the problem of the role and place of Jews (and other ethnic
minorities) in Soviet machinery, studied declassified archive documents and concluded that at
the initial stage of activity of the punitive agencies, during the Red Terror, national minorities
constituted approximately 50 percent of the central Cheka apparatus, with their representation on
the major posts reaching 70 percent.On September 25, 1918 the author provides statistical data:
among the ethnic minorities — numerous Latvians and fairly numerous Poles – the Jews are
quite noticeable, especially among major and active Cheka officials, i.e., commissars and
investigators. For instance, among the investigators of the Department of Counter-Revolutionary
Activities – the most important Cheka department – half were Jews.
Below are the service records of several Chekists of the very first order (from the Russian
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