1st trend is translation history

There are 5 normative requirements which compose the norm of translation: 1) norms of translation equivalence, 2) genre and stylistics norms of translation, 3) norms of translation speech, 4) pragmatic norm of translation, 5) conventional norms of translation.
The pragmatic norm of translation can be defined as a requirement of providing of pragmatic value of translation. It is not a «norm» in complete sense of this word, because pragmatic underlying task of translating act can be individual and not incident to the translation in general. However, modification of results of process of translation for pragmatic purposes is widespread phenomenon, without the account of which the normative estimation of translations is impossible.


2. Techniques in the process of translation
Direct Translation Techniques are used when structural and conceptual elements of the source language can be transposed into the target language. Direct translation techniques include: Borrowing, Calque, Literal Translation.
Borrowing is the taking of words directly from one language into another without translation. Many English words are "borrowed" into other languages; for example software in the field of technology and funk in culture.
Calque or loan translation is a phrase borrowed from another language and translated literally word-for-word.Дом культуры – House of Culture, backbencher – заднескамеечник, стенная газета – wall newspaper.
Literal Translation or word translation is to be employed when dealing with separate words whose surface form and structure, as well as their lexical meaning in the source language and in the target language, fully coincide.
Oblique Translation Techniques are used when the structural or conceptual elements of the source language cannot be directly translated without altering meaning or upsetting the grammatical and stylistics elements of the target language: Transposition, Modulation, Reformulation or Equivalence, Adaptation, Compensation
Transposition - This is the process where parts of speech change their sequence when they are translated (blue ball becomes boule bleue in French).