1. Tense Categories of the English Language

4. English proverbs, their taxonomy and functionality.
Idiomatic or phraseological expressions (PE) are structurally, lexically and semantically fixed phrases or sentences having mostly the meaning, which is not made up by the sum of meanings of their component parts. the tables are/were turned(free word-combination) столи перекинуті/були перекинуті; (idiom)-ситуація докорінно змінилась; супротивники помінялись ролями). On rare occasions the lexical meaning of idiomatically bound expressions can coincide with their direct not transferred meaning, which facilitates their
understanding: to make way-дати дорогу; to die a dog’s death-здохнути як собака. Carefully treated must be many English and Ukrainian picturesque idioms, proverbs and sayings, which have
national literary images reflect the traditions, customs of a nation. It often happens that the target language has more than 1 semantically similar PE for 1 in the source language. The bulk of this kind of PE belong to the so-called phraseological unities(many hands make work light-де згода, там і вигода; гуртом і чорта побореш; гуртом і батька добре бити; громада-великий чоловік)
By choosing absolute/complete equivalents-cold as ice
Translation of idioms by choosing near equivalents- to make a long story short-сказати коротко
Translation by choosing genuine idiomatic analogies. to have the ready tongue-за словом у кишеню не лізти).
Translating idioms by choosing approximate analogies- to lose one’s breath-кидати слова на вітер
Descriptive translating of idiomatic and set expressions- a single word(red blood-мужність, відвага);with the help of free combinations of words(school miss-соромлива, недосвідчена дівчина);by a sentence or longer explanation(well day-день, коли у хворого не погіршувався стан здоров’я).
5.Modal Verbs, their Evolution and Functioning
Modern English modal verbs (can, be, will, ought, shall, etc). In the OE and ME they had a system of personal endings but in the process of evolution they were dropped. In ME and Early New English: phonetic and semantic changes which affected their functions.They lost the forms of the verbals and the distinctions between the forms of number and mood in the Present tense. In NE their paradigms have been reduced to two forms or even one. The verbs can, could, may, might, will, would, shall (mainly British English), should, must and ought are called 'modal auxiliary verbs'. They are used before the infinitives of other verbs, and add certain kinds of meaning connected with certainty or with obligation and freedom to act (see next section). Need and dare can sometimes be used like modal auxiliary verbs, and the expression had better is also used like a modal auxiliary.1)Modal verbs have no -s in the third person singular. 2)Questions, negatives, tags and short answers are made without do. 3)After modal auxiliary verbs, we use the infinitive without to of other verbs. Ought is an exception.4)Modal verbs do not have infinitives or participles 5)certain past ideas can be expressed by a modal verb followed by a perfect infinitive (have + past participle).6)Modal verbs have contracted negative forms (can't, won't etc) which are used in an informal style. (Shan't and mayn't are only used in British English; mayn't is very rare.) Will and would also have contracted affirmative forms ('II, 'd). Some modals have both 'strong' and 'weak' pronunciations. We use them, for example, to talk about things which we expect, which are or are not possible, which we think are necessary, which we want to happen, which we are not sure about, which tend to happen, or which have not happened.