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Onomatopoeia
[ ] Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds. It can be divided into: direct and indirect. Direct is imitation of natural sounds produced by animals and other natural sounds: buzz, meow, cuckoo, bubble, tick-tuck. Indirect is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance and echo of its sense. It something called echo-writing: 'And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain' (E. A. Poe). Repetition ‘s’ produced the sound of the rustling of the curtains.
Alliteration
Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device based on the repetition of same or similar sounds at close distance which makes speech move expressive. "Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before." (E. A. Poe). Alliteration in the English language is deeply rooted in the traditions of English folklore. In Old English poetry alliteration was one of the basic principles of verse and considered, along with rhythm, to be its main characteristic. Each stressed meaningful word in a line had to begin with the same sound or combination of sounds. It is frequently used as not only in verse but in emotive prose, in newspaper headlines, in the titles of books, in proverbs and sayings: ‘Sense and sensibility’ / ‘The school for scandal’.
Rhyme; Rhythm
Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. Rhyme is created by the repetition of the same sound in the last stressed syllable of 2 lines in a stanza (строфа). According to the way the rhymes are arranged within the stanza, we can distinguished the following models:
1. couplets —when the last words of two successive lines are rhymed. This is commonly marked aa.
2. triple rhymes—aaa
3. cross rhymes—abab
4. framing or ring rhymes—abba
We can also find so called eye-rhyme (графическая рифма), when the elements rhymed are similar only in spelling, but not in pronunciation. Many eye-rhyme are the result of historical changes in the vowel sound in certain position: love-prove / flood-brood / have-grave. There is still another variety of rhyme, called internal rhyme (внутренняя). The rhyming words are placed not at the end of lines, but within it: "I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers." (Shelley).
Rhythm exists in all spheres of human activity. It is a powerful weapon in stirring up (активизация )emotions. The most general definition of rhythm may be expressed as follows: "Rhythm is a flow, movement, procedure, characterized by basically regular repetition of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation (чередование) with opposite or different elements or features". Rhythm is the main factor which brings order into the utterance. Rhythm in language necessarily demands oppositions that alternate: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low.
Metaphor, Metonymy, Irony
Metaphor means a transference (перенос) of some quality from one object to another, transference of meaning based on resembles (перенос смысла основанного на сходстве): ‘Hi is not a man, he is just a machine’. Not only object can be compared in a metaphor, but also phenomena, actions or qualities. Metaphor may be simple, containing a word or phrase: /‘Man can not live by bred alon’ Не хлебом единым жив человек./ and complex, prolonged or sustained, then the broader context is required to understand.
Metaphor can also be divided into fresh or genuine (оригинальная) and trite (банальный) or dead (стершаяся). Trite metaphors are those that are used in speech, so they have lost their freshness of expression, such metaphors are often fixed in dictionaries: seeds of evil / a flight of imagination/ to fish for compliments/ to burn with desire.
Metonymy means a transference of meaning based on contiguity of notions not on likeness (смежности понятий, а не по подобию). There are several types of relations metonymy is based on.
the name of a part instead of the name of a whole = synecdoche [ ]: ‘Washington and London adree on most issues’ = USA+UK’
the name of the container instead the name of contents: ‘The hall applauded
the name of the characteristic feature of an object instead the object: ‘The massacre of the innocents” (Избиение младенцев)
the name of the instrument instead the name of an action or the doer of an action: ‘All they that take the sword, shall perish with the sword’ - Все, взявшие меч, погибнет с мечом.
It must also be noticed that metonymy generally concerns concrete object which are generalized. The process of generalization is easily carried out with the help of the definite article. Therefore examples of metonymy are very often used with the definite article, or with no article at all.
Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings—dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other. Usually the direct meaning (dictionary) in such cases expresses a positive evaluation at the situation, while the context contains the opposite, negative evaluation: ‘How delightful to find yourself in a foreign country without a penny in your pocket.’ / ‘I don’t’ consult doctor for I hope to die without their help’.
The word containing the irony is strongly marked by intonation. The effect of irony lies in the striking disparity between what is said and what is meant (Эффект иронии заключается в поразительной несоответствие между тем, что сказано и что имеется в виду).
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