1. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics. Lexical units

2) bases that coincide with word-forms; e.g. paper-bound, unsmiling, unknown. This class of bases is confined to verbal word-forms — the present and the past participles.
3) bases that coincide with word-grоups of different degrees of stability, e ,g. second-rateness, flat-waisted, etc. This class is made of word-groups. Bases of this kind are most active with derivational affixes in the class of adjectives and nouns, e.g. blue-eyed, long-fingered, old-fashioned, do-gooder, etc.
Derivational affixes: Derivational affixes are ICs of numerous derivatives in all parts of speech. Derivational affixes possess two basic functions: 1) that of stem-building and 2) that of word-building. In most cases derivational affixes perform both functions simultaneously. It is true that the part-of-speech meaning is proper in different degrees to the derivational suffixes and prefixes. It stands out clearly in derivational suffixes but it is less evident in prefixes; some prefixes lack it altogether. Prefixes like en-, un-, de-, out-, be-, unmistakably possess the part-of-speech meaning and function as verb classifiers. The prefix over-evidently lacks the part-of-speech meaning and is freely used both for verbs and adjectives, the same may be said about non-, pre-, post-.
Derivational patterns: A derivational pattern is a regular meaningful arrangement, a structure that imposes rigid rules on the order and the nature of the derivational bases and affixes that may be brought together.
There are two types of DPs — structural that specify base classes and individual affixes, and structural-semantic that specify semantic peculiarities of bases and the individual meaning of the affix. DPs of different levels of generalisation signal: 1) the class of source unit that motivates the derivative and the direction of motivation between different classes of words; 2) the part of speech of the derivative; 3) the lexical sets and semantic features of derivatives.
11. Derivational analysis of E words
Derivational analysis – word-formation analysis.
1.Derivational base – is a part of word to which a rule of word-formation is applied. Ex: girlish – girl – derivative base. It can be divided: - stem: *simple – girlish; *derived – girlishness; *compound – girlfriend. – word-form: P1 or P2 as a base: unknown. – word-group: narrow-minded, longfingered.
2.Derivational affixes
3.Deriv. pattern: v +suf->noun – agreement
The types of words according to its derive structure: 1. Simple non-derived; 2. Derivatives: - derived (affixational derivatives, conversion derivatives); - compound (compound proper, derivational compounds).
Ways of Word-formation: 1. Major: - derivation (affixation, convertion); - word-composition; 2. Minor: - shortening; - reduplication.

12. Affixation


Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to different types of bases. The zero degree of derivation is ascribed to simple words, i.e. words whose stem is homonymous with a word-form e.g. atom, haste, devote, anxious, horror, etc. Derived words whose bases are built on simple stems + one derivational affix are described as having the first degree of derivation, e.g. atomic, hasty, devotion, etc. Derived words formed by two consecutive stages of adding affixes the second degree of derivation, etc., e.g. atomical, hastily, devotional, etc. Affixation is subdivided into suffixation and prefixation. In Modern English suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and adjective formation, while prefixation is mostly typical of verb formation.
Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes. There are about 51 prefixes in the system of Modern English word-formation. The greater number of words that take prefixes are verbs – 42.4%, adjectives comprise 33,5% and nouns make up 22.4% (verbs: enrich, coexist, undergo; adjectives: antiwar, uneasy, superhuman; nouns: coauthor, disharmony. Two types of prefixes are to be distinguished:

1. 
   those not correlated with any independent word (either notional or functional), e.g. un-, dis-, re-, pre-, post-, etc.; and
   
2. 
   those correlated with functional words (prepositions or preposition like adverbs), e.g. out-, over-, up-, under-, etc. These prefixes are qualified as semi bound morphemes, which implies that they occur in speech in various utterances both as independent words and as derivational affixes (over the river – overpass, under the table – underestimate).
   

Prefixes may be classified on different principles. Diachronically distinction is made between prefixes of native and foreign origin.¹ Synchronically prefixes may be classified:

1. 
   according to the class of words they preferably form. The majority of prefixes tend to function either in nominal parts of speech (41 patterns in adjectives, 42 in nouns) or in verbs (22 patterns).
   
2. 
   as to the type of lexical-grammatical character of the base they are added to (deverbal, denominal, deadjectival).
   
3. 
   semantically prefixes fall into mono- and polysemantic.
   
4. 
   as to the generic denotational meaning: negative (un-, non-, in-, dis-); reversative (un-, de-, dis-); perjorative (mis-, mal-, pseudo-); prefixes of time and order (fore-, pre-, post-, ex-); prefix of repetition (re-); locative prefixes (super-, sub-, inter-, trans-).
   
5. 
   neutral stylistic reference (un-, out-, re-, under-) and those possessing quite a definite stylistic value, they have literary-bookish character (pseudo-, super-, ultra-).
   
6. 
   prefixes may be also classified as to the degree of productivity into highly-productive, productive and non-productive.
   

Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes usually transfer words to a different part of speech. Chains of suffixes occurring in derived words having two and more suffixal morphemes are sometimes referred to in lexicography as compound suffixes: -ably = -able + -ly (e.g. profitably, unreasonably); -ically = -ic + -al + -ly (e.g. musically, critically); -ation = -ate + -ion (e.g. fascination, isolation) and some others. Further, there are suffixes due to which the primary stress is shifted to the syllable immediately preceding them, e.g. courageous (cf. courage), stability (cf. stable), investigation (cf. investigate), peculiarity (cf. peculiar), etc.
There are different classifications of suffixes:

1. 
   The first principle of classification that, one might say, suggests itself is the part of speech formed:
   

Noun-suffixes (-er, -dom, -ness, -ation)
Adjective-suffixes (-able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous)
Verb-suffixes (-en, -fy, -ise)
Adverb-suffixes (-ly, -ward)
2) Suffixes may also be classified into various groups according to the lexico-grammatical character of the base the affix is usually added to: a) deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base), e.g. -er, -ing, -ment, -able, etc. (speaker, reading, agreement, suitable, etc.);

2. 
   denominal suffixes (those added to the noun base), e.g. -less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some, etc. (handless, childish, mouthful, violinist, troublesome, etc.);
   
3. 
   de-adjectival suffixes (those affixed to the adjective base), e.g. -en, -ly, -ish, -ness, etc. (blacken, slowly, reddish, brightness, etc.).
   

3) A classification of suffixes may also be based on the criterion of sense expressed by a set of suffixes: a) the agent of an action, e.g. -er, -ant (baker, dancer, defendant, etc.);

2. 
   appurtenance, e.g. -an, -ian, -ese, etc. (Arabian, Elizabethan, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, etc.);
   
3. 
   collectivity, e.g. -age, -dom, -ery (-ry), etc. (freightage, officialdom, peasantry, etc.);
   
4. 
   diminutiveness, e.g. -ie, -let, -ling, etc. (birdie, girlie, cloudlet, squireling, wolfling, etc.).
   

4) From the angle of stylistic reference: a) those characterised by neutral stylistic reference such as -able, -er, -ing, etc.;

2. 
   those having a certain stylistic value such as -oid, -i/form, -aceous, -tron, etc.
   

5) Suffixes are also classified as to the degree of their productivity.
Productivity: Distinction is usually made between dead and living affixes. Dead affixes are described as those which are no longer felt in Modern English as component parts of words; they have so fused with the base of the word as to lose their independence completely, e.g. -d in dead, seed, -le, -1, -el in bundle, sail, hovel; -ock in hillock; -lock in wedlock; -t in flight, gift, height. Living affixes may be easily singled out from a word, e.g. the noun-forming suffixes -ness, -dom, -hood, -age, -ance, as in darkness, freedom, childhood, marriage, assistance, etc. or the adjective-forming suffixes -en, -ous, -ive, -ful, -y as in wooden, poisonous, active, hopeful, Stony, etc.


Origin: the division is make between native and foreign affixes, e.g. the suffixes -ness, -ish, -dom and the prefixes be-, mis-, un- are of native origin, whereas such suffixes as -ation, -ment, -able and prefixes like dis-, ex-, re- are of foreign origin.
Many of the suffices and prefixes of native origin were originally independent words (-hood = OE state, -dom = OE judgement, -ly = OE body). In the course of its historical development the English language has adopted a great many suffixes and prefixes from foreign languages. Among borrowed derivational affixes we find both suffixes, e.g. -able, -ible, -al, -age, -ance, -ist, -ism, -ess, etc., and prefixes, e.g. dis-, en[em]-, inter-, re-, non- and many others.
The adoption of foreign words influence the system of English word-formation, so Hybrid words appear: 1) Cases when a foreign stem is combined with a native affix, as in colourless, uncertain. 2) Cases when native stems are combined with foreign affixes, such as drinkable, joyous, shepherdes.
12. Affixation in English
Affixation – is the formation of new words by adding derivative affixes to derivational bases. It’s one of the most important sources of vocabulary ……………….
Classification of affixes: 1. According to the number of words they create, all affixes may be classified into productive (un-, re-, -er) and non-productive (………….., - hood); 2. From the point of view of their current participation in word-formation process, the derivational affixes are divided into active and non-active, or dead affixes (for- in forgive, forbid, forget); 3. From the point of view of their origin: native (-dom, -hood, over-) and borrowed (-able, -ist); 4. Synchronically all the affixes are divided into verbal, adj., adv., ………….. (womanly – quickly, frightening – writing)
Prefixation
The number from 50 to 80
1.from the etymological point of view native and borrowed prefixes (may be distinguished, the majority are loans, only a quarter are native. 2. From the functional point of view……………., may be classified as convertive and non-convertive. Conventive ones convert (convey) a word into another part of speech (pref + noun ->v: to be head); the non-convertive – they only change modify lexical meaning of a word without changing its part of speech meaning (pref + noun ->noun: vice-president). 3. Pref can be used to form new words of all parts of speech, to they may be classified into noun-forming, adjective-forming, verb-forming. 4. May be class semantically: - negation, ……………………….. ; -sequence and order in time (pre,post,ex); - different space location (inter, trans); - repetition (re); - quantity and intensity (uni, poly).
Suffixation – is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. There are indentified from 60 to 130 suffixes. One should not confuse a real derivational suffix a suffixoid – a word-final sequence resembling a suffix without having its qualities (-er in spider).


13. Convertion.
Conversion is one of the principal ways of forming words in Modern English and it is highly productive. Conversion consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged. The new word has a meaning which differs from that of the original one though it can more or less be easily associated with it: work — to work; love — to love; paper — to paper; brief — to brief, etc.
Conversion can be described as a morphological way of forming words. The following indisputable cases of conversion have bееn discussed in linguistic literature:

1. 
   formation of verbs from nouns and more rarely from other parts of speech, and
   
2. 
   formation of nouns from verbs and rarely from other parts of speech.
   

The treatment of conversion as a morphological way of forming words was suggested by prof. Smirnitsky. Other linguists define conversion as a non-affixal way of forming words pointing out that the characteristic feature is that a certain stem is used for the formation of a different word of a different part of speech without a derivational affix being added. Others hold the view that conversion is the formation of new words with the help of a zero-morpheme. There is also a point of view on conversion as a morphological-syntactic word-building means, for it involves both a change of the paradigm and a change of the syntactic function of the word. Besides, there is also a purely syntactic approach commonly known as a functional approach to conversion. They define conversion as a shift from one part of speech to another contending that in Modern English a word may function as two different parts of speech at the same time. The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous amongst the words produced by conversion: e. g. to hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf, to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor, to blackmail, to blacklist, to honeymoon, and very many others. Nouns are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This is the queerest do I've ever come across. Do — event, incident), go (e. g. He has still plenty of go at his age. Go — energy), make, run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move, etc.
Basic Criteria: the problem of the criteria of semantic derivation: which of the two words within a conversion pair is the derived member? The first criterion makes use of the non-correspondence between the lexical meaning of the root-morpheme and the part-of-speech meaning of the stem in one of the two words making up a conversion pair. In cases like pen n — pen v, father n — father v, etc. The second criterion involves a comparison of a conversion pair with analogous word-pairs making use of the synonymic sets, of which the words in question are members. For instance, in comparing conversion pairs like chat v — chat n; show v — show n; work v — work n, etc. with analogous synonymic word-pairs like converse — conversation; exhibit — exhibition; occupy — occupation; employ — employment, etc. we are led to conclude that the nouns chat, show, work, etc. are the derived members.
Of more universal character is the criterion based on derivational relations within the word-cluster of which the converted words in question are members. It will be recalled that the stems of words making up a word-cluster enter into derivational relations of different degrees. If the centre of the cluster is a verb, all derived words of the first degree of derivation have suffixes generally added to a verb-base. The centre of a cluster being a noun, all the first-degree derivatives have suffixes generally added to a noun-base
Of very wide application is the criterion of semantic derivation based on semantic relations within conversion pairs. It is natural to conclude that the existence within a conversion pair of a type of relations typical of, e.g., denominal verbs proves that the verb is the derived member.
Of late a new criterion of semantic derivation for conversion pairs has been suggested.¹ It is based on the frequency of occurrence in various utterances of either of the two member-words related through conversion.The most universal are the semantic and the frequency criteria of semantic derivation.
Conversion is a convenient and "easy" way of enriching the vocabulary with new words. The high productivity of conversion finds its reflection in speech where numerous occasional cases of conversion can be found.
13. Conversion in English
Conversion – the process of changing a word class without adding an affix. The case of phonetic identity of 2 words belonging to different parts of speech. Ex. To run – run, eye – to eye, water – to water.
Approaches by conversion: -- a case of polysemy; -- a case of homonymy. Semantic relations within a conversion pair. Denominal verbs usually denote: 1. Action characteristic of an object (to food, to father); 2. Instrumental use of an object (to knife); 3. Addition of an object (to fish, to milk); 4. Deprivation (лишение) of an object (to dust, to skin). Deverbal nouns: 1. Instance of an action (a smile, a try); 2. Agent of an action (a help, a bore); 3. Place of an action (a drive, a race, a run); 4. Obj/result (a buy, a peel).

14. compounding
Compounding: This type of word-building, in which new words are produced by combining two or more stems, is one of the three most productive types in Modern English, the other two are conversion and affixation. Compounds, though certainly fewer in quantity than derived or root words, still represent one of the most typical and specific features of English word-structure.
Compounds, on the one hand, are generally clearly distinguished from free word-groups, on the other hand they borderline between them display close ties and it’s sometimes difficult to identity where is a compound word and where is a word phrase. So there are some criteria which are used to differentiate them: phonetic criterion, morphological, semantic and graphic.