The development of esp historical and theoretical perspective

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ESP HISTORICAL AND THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE

This study aims at exploring the historical development of ESP beginning with its use by the United States Armed Forces post Second World War. The study also discusses the various definitions of ESP and how they relate to each other. Major characteristics of ESP, types of ESP and challenges of ESP are also discussed. The study concludes with a thorough discussion of ESP as an approach to English language teaching today and how ESP may be used as an effective method in language pedagogy. Keywords: ESP development, ESP definitions, ESP characteristics, ESP types, ESP challenges. 1. Introduction Before we delve into discussing the current status of ESP, it is absolutely crucial to relate the field of ESP to the overall discipline of linguistics in general and applied linguistics in particular. The tradition of applied linguistics was established in part as a response to the narrowing of focus in linguistics in the late 1950s, and has always maintained a socially accountable role, demonstrated by its central interest in language problems. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is now well-established as an important and distinctive part of English Language Teaching. Since the late 1980's ESP has changed in two very significant respects. First, English for Business Purposes which has become an increasingly important, even dominant, area of ESP. Second, the work of discourse and genre analysis on the one hand and the results of computer-based analysis on the other provide a fuller understanding of how specific texts, both written and spoken, work. It may be safe to claim that people throughout the world today fully realize the importance of the English language as a global or international language. English has been increasingly becoming an inseparable part of people’s lives regardless of their careers, locations or native languages. Traditionally, when educators and applied linguists talk about the concept of English language teaching, they usually refer to the teaching of what is known today as general English. However, this understanding has also changed over the past few decades and the teaching of ESP has become more and more popular world-wide. A change in methods of teaching also became needed to maximize the educational outcomes of the process of foreign language teaching. Special educational programs were also designed for each ESP program to meet the specific needs of learners in that particular program. All of this was dictated by the overall goals specified for each program and the kind of specific training the learners hope to achieve upon completion of their specific program to help them eventually become

European Journal of Social Sciences – Vol 40 Issue 4 (2013) 616 more marketable in terms of employment and in real life situations which is the ultimate goal of ESP programs everywhere. A number of applied linguists and foreign language specialists discussed the importance of foreign language learning. (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) for example, claim that knowledge of a foreign language has been regarded as a sign of a well-rounded education, but few had really questioned why it was necessary. Strevens (1988) states that learners may want to learn Russian, specifically in order to read scientific papers on the aerodynamics of supersonic flight; German, specifically to act as an important agent for domestic electrical appliances and English specifically to study textile engineering at Leeds University; etc. There are so many other examples of learning English for specific reasons especially career-oriented tasks or positions that enable learners to train for a specific job from which they can make a daily living. This job-oriented language learning program has become so popular among learners world-wide and has attracted and motivated ESP specialists to design special ESP programs and provide special ESP training courses specifically designed for learners according to their specific needs and career goals. ESP refers to a distinctive strong movement which has spread allover the world and is still continuing with more power and effect. It has stemmed from the traditional current of Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) and Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) and has progressively established itself as a separate new trend influencing the whole English Teaching/Learning process. 2. Purpose The purpose of this study is to shed light on the historical development of ESP using the Second World War as a starting point. The study also discusses the importance of ESP exploring the various definitions of the discipline. Furthermore, it discusses the major characteristics of ESP and classifies the field into several types. Finally, the study explores the different challenges facing ESP with special emphasis on ESP as an approach to English language teaching today. 3. Importance of ESP ESP has become increasingly important as: • There has been an increase in vocational training and learning throughout the world. • With the spread of globalization has come the increasing use of English as the language of international communication. More and more people are using English in a growing number of occupational contexts. • Students are starting to learn and therefore master general English at a younger age, and so move on to ESP at an earlier age. 4. Definitions of ESP ESP has been defined differently by different authors. Some regard it as “an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 19). Likewise, Strevens (1988: 1) stated that “ESP is a particular case of the general category of special-purpose language teaching”. A definition of ESP needs to distinguish between absolute characteristics and variable characteristics. The absolute characteristics of ESP are as follows: • ESP consists of English language teaching which is: • Designed to meet specified needs of the learners. • Related to content, to particular disciplines, occupations and activities.
European Journal of Social Sciences – Vol 40 Issue 4 (2013) 617 • Centered on the language appropriate to those activities, in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics, etc. • In contrast with “General English”. • ESP may be, but is not necessary: • Restricted as to the language skills to be learned. • Taught according to any pre-ordained methodology. With specific purposes in mind, the learners know clearly what they need to learn, and they will learn with high motivation what they find useful for their work later or at the present time. For this reason, an ESP teacher should be aware of the learners’ needs so as not to introduce irrelevant material to the course. • English for Specific Purposes or English for Special Purposes: English taught to people whose first language is not English, but who need to know technical, scientific, and other English vocabulary from specific fields for their careers or education. • English for Specific (or Special) Purposes: the technique of teaching English to students who need it for a particular purpose, such as business dealings. • English for specific purposes (ESP), not to be confused with specialized English, is a sphere of teaching English language including Business English, Technical English, Scientific English, English for medical professionals, English for waiters, English for tourism, English for Art Purposes, etc. For example, Aviation English as ESP is taught to pilots, air traffic controllers and civil aviation cadets who are going to use it in radio communications. Most people (Streven, 1980; Robinson, 1980; Widdowson, 1983; Dudley-Evans and St John, 1997) have agreed that an ESP course would have the following features: • It is purposeful and aimed at the successful performance of occupational or educational roles by an individual or a group. • It is based on an analysis of the students’ needs and is tailor-made to meet these needs. • It may differ from another general language course in its selection of skills, themes, topics, situations, functions, language and methodology. ESP can be considered as the basis for broad divisions of various EAP (English for Academic Purposes), EOP (English for Occupational Purposes "e.g. English for Business"), and EVP (English for Vocational Purposes). EAP includes also EST (English for Science and Technology) as an important part of ESP because there is a greater demand on science and technology for the purposes of transferring scientific knowledge and of mastering technology. Once the English language teacher finds himself or herself involved in an ESP environment with students needing an ESP learning, he or she must determine by means of a needs analysis the English course to be taught, the content, the forms, the methodology of teaching and, finally, the set of communicative functions and abilities that should be achieved by the students. English for specific purposes (ESP) teaching involves teaching English with particular attention to a certain area, for example, business, tourism, medicine, the law or engineering. ESP teachers tend to have had some general English as a foreign language (EFL) teaching experience first. 5. Salient Issues Regarding (ESP) Gatehouse (2007) discusses four key notions about ESP. They are as follows: a) the distinctions between the absolute and variable characteristics of ESP, b) types of ESP, c) characteristics of ESP courses, and d) the meaning of the word 'special' in ESP. Dudley-Evans and St. John have removed the absolute characteristic that 'ESP is in contrast with General English' and added more variable characteristics. They assert that ESP is not necessarily related to a specific discipline. Furthermore, ESP is likely to be used with adult learners although it could be used with young adults in a high school setting.
European Journal of Social Sciences – Vol 40 Issue 4 (2013) 618 5.1. Characteristics of ESP 5.1.1. Absolute Characteristics 1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners (Maslow's hierarchy of needs). 2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves. 3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre. 4. ESP practitioners are also becoming increasingly involved in intercultural communication and the development of intercultural competence. 5.1.2. Variable Characteristics Strevens' (1988): ESP may be, but is not necessarily: 1. Restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only). 2. Taught according to any pre-ordained methodology (pp.1-2). Anthony (1997): 1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines. 2. ESP may be used, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English. 3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at the college level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at a high school level. 4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. 5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners (1997, pp. 4-5). 5.2. Types of ESP David Carver (1983) identifies three types of ESP: • English as a restricted language. • English for Academic and Occupational Purposes. • English with specific topics. The language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of English as a restricted language. The second type of ESP identified by Carver (1983) is English for Academic and Occupational Purposes. In the 'Tree of ELT' (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down into three branches: a) English for Science and Technology (EST), b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and c) English for Social Studies (ESS). Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). An example of EOP for the EST branch is 'English for Technicians' whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is 'English for Medical Studies'. The third and final type of ESP identified by Carver (1983) is English with specific topics. Carver notes that it is only here where emphasis shifts from purpose to topic. This type of ESP is uniquely concerned with anticipated future English needs of, for example, scientists requiring English for postgraduate reading studies, attending conferences or working in foreign institutions. However, it may be argued that this is not a separate type of ESP. Rather it is an integral component of ESP courses or programs which focus on situational language. This situational language has been determined based on the interpretation of results from needs analysis of authentic language used in target workplace settings.
European Journal of Social Sciences – Vol 40 Issue 4 (2013) 619 5.3. Characteristics of ESP Courses The characteristics of ESP courses identified by Carver (1983) are discussed here. He states that there are three features common to ESP courses: a) authentic material, b) purpose-related orientation, and c) self-direction. If we revisit Dudley-Evans' (1997) claim that ESP should be offered at an intermediate or advanced level, use of authentic learning materials is entirely feasible. Closer examination of ESP materials will follow; suffice it to say at this juncture that use of authentic content materials, modified or unmodified in form, are indeed a feature of ESP, particularly in self-directed study and research tasks. For Language Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences, a large component of the student evaluation was based on an independent study assignment in which the learners were required to investigate and present an area of interest. The students were encouraged to conduct research using a variety of different resources, including the Internet. Purpose-related orientation refers to the simulation of communicative tasks required of the target setting. Carver (1983) cites student simulation of a conference, involving the preparation of papers, reading, note-taking, and writing. Finally, self-direction is characteristic of ESP courses in that the " ... point of including self-direction ... is that ESP is concerned with turning learners into users" (Carver, 1983, p. 134). In order for self-direction to occur, the learners must have a certain degree of freedom to decide when, what, and how they will study. Carver (1983) also adds that there must be a systematic attempt by teachers to teach the learners how to learn by teaching them about learning strategies. 5.4. The Meaning of the Word "Special" in ESP One simple clarification will be made here: special language and specialized aim are two entirely different notions. It was Perren (1974) who noted that confusion arises over these two notions. If we revisit Mackay and Mountford's restricted repertoire, we can better understand the idea of a special language. Mackay and Mountford (1978) state: The only practical way in which we can understand the notion of special language is as a restricted repertoire of words and expressions selected from the whole language because that restricted repertoire covers every requirement within a well-defined context, task or vocation (p. 4). On the other hand, a specialized aim refers to the purpose for which learners learn a language, not the nature of the language they learn (Mackay & Mountford, 1978). Consequently, the focus of the word 'special' in ESP ought to be on the purpose for which learners learn and not on the specific jargon or registers they learn. 6. Challenges of ESP ESP is presented as a challenge to the following audiences: • A challenge to learners facing the pressure to acquire English for their jobs or for study purposes. • A challenge to course designers, program planners and administrators to build ESP principles and practices into programs for adult learners. • A challenge to teachers and educators to gear practices of teacher training and development programs to the specifiable needs of adult learners in the region. With regard to the relationship between ESP and English language teaching, it may be clearly claimed that ESP is an approach to language teaching, which is directed by specific and apparent reasons for learning. Thus, whether it is labeled as "learner-centered" or "learning-centered", the focus of ESP teaching in light of the global Communicative Language Teaching is both on the learner and the process of learning in the context in which it takes place.
European Journal of Social Sciences – Vol 40 Issue 4 (2013) 620 Since emphasis is placed on the learner and the learning process, in discussing ESP teaching, a number of factors must be taken into consideration such as: Motivation, learning strategies and theories of learning, etc. Also, enough attention should be paid to issues closely related to any language course such as: Syllabus design, material development, methodology, assessment and evaluation. A prominent issue in ESP teaching is the role(s) of ESP teacher and students in light of peer teaching techniques. A teacher wishing to support learning throughout the various phases of a task would need to be able to play an extended set of roles including: Explorer of how the learners view the task, how they get ready for it, handle it and how their outcomes satisfy the demands of the task, indicate progress and highlight problems still to be addressed, etc. In fact, the ESP teacher is supposed to play the role as an explorer throughout the phases of a task, from warming-up the students to the task, instructing them how to handle it and monitoring their work to giving feedback. The more the ESP teacher can explore knowledge about the students as well as the task itself, the more successful the task will be. There are many types of peer-teaching activities. So, the ESP teacher has to choose and organize the most appropriate one for each task. For example, peer feedback should be applied to a translation task/ or a writing task where the students will check and give their comments on their peer’s translation version. As for the ESP teachers, this role is extremely important, because their students are adult learners who can understand and realize consultation. They can prepare for the task by discussing with their peers, or through seeking more information on a given subject matter from various sources. If the teacher is a good advisor, the students’ autonomy will be improved significantly. The primary role of the learner may include several tasks such as: • Explorer: The learner investigates his/her overall definition of peer teaching strategy, aspects of knowledge demands for the strategy, how the learner feels about the strategy and the progress he/she is making, etc. • Organizer: The learner plans, manages and gradually assumes a greater degree of responsibility for organizing and evaluating his/her learning arrangements, opportunities and conditions. It was proven that many ESP students are good organizers of their own learning tasks. • Strategist: The learner acquires greater self-knowledge of his/her personal learning strategies which can facilitate the handling of peer teaching activities (meta-cognitive, cognitive and socio-affective strategies). • Performer: The learner participates in teacher-instructed, rather than structured, monitored learning activities. The ESP students can perform the whole task such as pair-work, group-work, or even formal presentations. In some cases the ESP teachers can share the teaching responsibility with a group of students whose knowledge of the subject matter and language skills are good. • Guide: The learner participates in classroom learning activities either self-referenced, or in interaction with other learners; these may be “communicative” activities in which the learner is called upon to simulate or deploy knowledge in relatively unmonitored circumstances. The idea that teachers and learners play several roles is not particularly controversial (Wright, 1987). Such roles reflect the view that learners will become more effective if they are helped to become self-aware of their own learning strategies and preferences as applied to various peer teaching activities. It is important to realize that the roles suggested here do not “just happen”. The roles which learners will be expected to play will need to be carefully explained. How, in fact, would learner role-expansion take place? Essentially, it would take place through the peer teaching process. Note that each role played by the teacher has a parallel learner role, so we could imagine teachers and learners playing co-explorers, co-organizers, and co-communicators as explained below:
European Journal of Social Sciences – Vol 40 Issue 4 (2013) 621 • Co-explorers: They could dialogue about the process of teaching and other matters. The dialogue could be oral (individual or group discussion in English), or written (diaries, questionnaires, comment sheets, etc.). • Co-organizers: They could talk about how the peer teaching activities could be organized to promote optimum learning, and could negotiate such arrangements. • Co-communicators: They could talk in English in order to get and give input which could advance task completion and language learning in general. 7. ESP as an Approach to ELT 7.1. Teaching ESP is taught in many universities of the world. Much attention is devoted to ESP course design. ESP teaching has much in common with English as a Foreign or Second Language and English for Academic Purposes (EAP). Quickly developing Business English can be considered as part of a larger concept of ESP. Specialized English is a controlled version of the English language used for radio broadcasting, easier for non-native speakers of English. It is derived from Voice of America (VoA) Special English. Specialized English was developed initially by Feba Radio in the UK, but Feba ceased direct involvement in 2009. Specialized English programs are now produced in the US by Words of Hope and ReFrame Media and in the UK by HCJB Global. All of these are Christian religious broadcasters, but Specialized English is not used for religious preaching programs. Its main use is in the features service program "Spotlight", which is produced jointly and widely broadcast on over sixty outlets globally. Scripts and audio are also available freely on the Spotlight website. 7.2. Design and Usage 7.2.1. Special English Specialized English sounds the same as Special English, and it almost is the same. Both use a 1500 word core vocabulary, short sentences, and slow delivery (about 90 wpm). Special English was developed from about 1959 by Voice of America. Specialized was developed from Special in the late 1990s, independently of Voice of America. The methodological ethos is identical, but there is a slight difference in the vocabulary, and Specialized is more international. VoA is a federal US government department so is restricted from making Special English programs for anything other than VoA's own use. Specialized English operates in the civil society sector, and the developers aspire to make programs for a variety of public service purposes, subject to resources being available. The developers of Specialized felt they should choose a name that acknowledged both the similarity and the difference. The reason that Specialized was developed from Special English has to do with their respective intended usage. They are not primarily teaching tools (even though they are popular with listeners as an aid to learning) but communication tools. The choice of words in the 1500 word list depends to a degree on what is to be communicated. Most of the words are the most frequently learned, most commonly used English words. Both tools use these words. But many words are chosen for the intended purpose. For example, Special English uses words a US government news broadcaster might need, such as Congress, federal, administration, capitalism and recession. Specialized replaces some of these words with words used for religious subjects, such as blessing, prayer, miracle, and faith. Further revisions of the Specialized English list were made in 2000 and 2007, in light of the experience. Still, the overlap of the two vocabularies is 91.3%. The Specialized English word list allows greater breadth of meaning in some of the words used in both lists. For example, the word 'joint': Special: joint - ad. shared by two or more Specialized: joint - ad. shared by two or more; n. the place where two parts or things are fixed together.
European Journal of Social Sciences – Vol 40 Issue 4 (2013) 622 Specialized also allows more prefixes and suffixes, which has allowed some words to be removed from the core list. (e.g. wonderful not needed in the list because it can be built from wonder+ful). As well as the 1500 word core vocabulary, both Special and Specialized English also generally allow: inflections of the core words, numbers up to a million, pronouns, proper nouns, and any words whose meaning can be communicated in real time (in a radio broadcast) using the core vocabulary. Special English is a controlled version of the English language first used on October 19, 1959, and still presented daily by the United States broadcasting service Voice of America (VoA). World news and other programs are read one-third slower than regular VoA English. Reporters avoid idioms and use a core vocabulary of about 1500 words, plus any terms needed to explain a story. The intended audience is intermediate to advanced learners of English. Transcripts, MP3s, archives and podcasts of programs are provided at voaspecialenglish.com 7.2.2. English for Academic Purposes EAP This entails training students, usually in a higher education setting, to use language appropriately for study. It is a challenging and multi-faceted area within the wider field of English language learning and teaching (ELT), and is one of the most common forms of (ESP). An EAP program focuses instruction on skills required to perform in an English-speaking academic context across core subject areas generally encountered in a university setting. Programs may also include a more narrow focus on the more specific linguistic demands of a particular area of study, for example business subjects. Programs may be divided into pre-sessional courses and courses taken alongside students' other subjects. In the former case, sometimes EAP courses may be intended to raise students' general English levels so that they can enter the university. In the UK, this often means endeavoring to help students get a score of 6 or above in the IELTS examination. In the US, this can mean helping students attain a score of 80 or greater on the TOEFL or more than 4 on the iTEP. Outside Anglophone countries, English-medium universities may have a preparatory school where students can spend a year or two working on their English and academic skills before starting degree courses. EAP courses running alongside other degree courses may be based on the American English and Composition model, or may employ Content-based instruction, either using material from the students' degree subjects or as an independent, elective-like course. These in-sessional courses may be desirable more to help students develop study skills and required academic practices than for language development. In common with most language teaching, EAP instruction teaches vocabulary, grammar and the four skills (reading, writing, speaking - including pronunciation - and listening), but usually tries to tie these to the specific study needs of students; for example, a writing lesson would focus on writing essays rather than, say, business letters. Similarly, the vocabulary chosen for study tends to be based on academic texts. In addition, EAP practitioners often find that, either directly or indirectly, they are teaching study skills and often having to tackle differences in educational culture, such as differing attitudes to plagiarism. This trend has become more prominent as the numbers of foreign students attending UK universities, and other institutions across the Anglosphere, has increased over the last decade. There is some debate amongst EAP teachers as to the best way to help students with academic English. On one hand, students might be taught particular conventions but not expected to understand why they need to adapt their writing; a pragmatic approach. On the other hand students might be encouraged to challenge writing conventions and only adopt them if they seem justified; a critical approach. Recently attempts have been made to try and reconcile these opposing views. A critical pragmatic approach to EAP encourages students to develop writing conventions required by universities while also encouraging them to think about the reasons why these conventions exist.
European Journal of Social Sciences – Vol 40 Issue 4 (2013) 623 8. History and Development of ESP Certainly, a great deal about the origins of ESP could be said. Notably, there are three reasons common to the emergence of ESP: the demands of a Brave New World, a revolution in linguistics, and focus on the learner (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). They note that two key historical periods breathed life into ESP. First, the end of the Second World War brought with it an " ... age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale for various reasons, most notably the economic power of the United States in the post-world war, the role [of international language] fell to English" (p. 6). Second, the Oil Crisis of the early 1970s resulted in Western money and knowledge flowing into the oil-rich countries. The language through which that knowledge was communicated became English. The general effect of all this development was to exert pressure on the language teaching profession to deliver the required goods. Whereas English had previously decided its own destiny, it now became subject to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language teachers (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.7). The second key reason cited as having a tremendous impact on the emergence of ESP was a revolution in linguistics. Whereas traditional linguists set out to describe the features of language, revolutionary pioneers in linguistics began to focus on the ways in which language is used in real communication. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) point out that one significant discovery was in the ways that spoken and written English vary. In other words, given the particular context in which English is used, the variant of English will change. This idea was taken one step farther. If language in different situations varies, then tailoring language instruction to meet the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible. Hence, in the late 1960s and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English for Science and Technology (EST). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identify Ewer and Latorre, Swales, Selinker and Trimble as a few of the prominent descriptive EST pioneers. The final reason Hutchinson and Waters (1987) cite as having influenced the emergence of ESP has less to do with linguistics and everything to do with psychology. Rather than simply focus on the method of language delivery, more attention was given to the ways in which learners acquire language and the differences in the ways language is acquired. Learners were seen to employ different learning strategies, use different skills, enter with different learning schemata, and be motivated by different needs and interests. Therefore, focus on the learners' needs became equally paramount as the methods employed to disseminate linguistic knowledge. Designing specific courses to better meet these individual needs was a natural extension of this thinking. To this day, the catchword in ESL circles is learner-centered or learning-centered. Since the late 1980s, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has established itself not only as an important and distinctive branch of English Language Teaching (ELT), but has also incorporated most of the work on discourse and genre analysis, as well as the results of corpus linguistics.

References

[1] Anthony, L. (1997). English for Specific Purposes: What does it mean? Why is it different?
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[6] Gatehouse, K. (2007). Key Issues in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Curriculum
Development. Kristen Gatehouse khoey, www.khae-service.com.
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[7] Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centered

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References
[1] Anthony, L. (1997). English for Specific Purposes: What does it mean? Why is it different?
CUE, 5 (3), pp. 9-10.
[2] Carver, D. (1983). Some propositions about ESP. The ESP Journal, 2 (2), pp.131-137.
[3] Dudley-Evans, T. (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A multi-disciplinary
approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
[4] Dudley-Evans, T. (1997). An Overview of ESP in the 1990s. In: The Japan Conference on
English for Specific Purposes Proceedings. (Aizuwakamatsu City, Fukushima, Japan,
November 8).
[5] Dudley-Evans, T. (1993) “The debate over Milton Friedman’s theoretical framework: an
applied linguist's view”. In: W. Henderson, T. Dudley-Evans, & R. Backhouse, (eds.),
Economics and Language (pp. 132-152). London: Routledge.
[6] Gatehouse, K. (2007). Key Issues in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Curriculum
Development. Kristen Gatehouse khoey, www.khae-service.com.
European Journal of Social Sciences – Vol 40 Issue 4 (2013) 627

[7] Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centered

approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
[8] Mackay, R., & Mountford, A. (Eds.). (1978). English for Specific Purposes: A case study
approach. London, UK: Longman Press.
[9] Perren, G. (1974). Forward in Teaching languages to adults for special purposes. CILT Reports
and Papers, 11, London: CILT.
[10] Robinson, P. (1980). ESP: The current position. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
[11] Strevens, P. (1988). "ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal". In: M. Tickoo, (Ed.), ESP: State
of the Art (pp. 1-13). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Centre.
[12] Strevens, P. (1980). Teaching English as an international language: From practice to principle.
Oxford and New York, UK & USA: Pergamon Press.
[13] Swales, J. (1990). Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
[14] Trimble, L. (1985). English for science and technology: A discourse approach. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
[15] Widdowson, H. (1983). Learning purpose and language use. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press.
[16] Widdowson. H. (1981), "English for Specific Purposes: Criteria for Course Design". In: L.
Selinker et al. (eds.), English for Academic and Technical Purposes: Studies in Honor of Louid
Trimble, (pp.1-2). London: Newbury House.
[17] Wright, T. (1987). "Instructional task and discoursal outcome". In: C. CandIin, & D. Murphy,
(Eds.), Language learning tasks (pp. 47-68). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
References
[1] Anthony, L. (1997). English for Specific Purposes: What does it mean? Why is it different?
CUE, 5 (3), pp. 9-10.
[2] Carver, D. (1983). Some propositions about ESP. The ESP Journal, 2 (2), pp.131-137.
[3] Dudley-Evans, T. (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A multi-disciplinary
approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
[4] Dudley-Evans, T. (1997). An Overview of ESP in the 1990s. In: The Japan Conference on
English for Specific Purposes Proceedings. (Aizuwakamatsu City, Fukushima, Japan,
November 8).
[5] Dudley-Evans, T. (1993) “The debate over Milton Friedman’s theoretical framework: an
applied linguist's view”. In: W. Henderson, T. Dudley-Evans, & R. Backhouse, (eds.),
Economics and Language (pp. 132-152). London: Routledge.
[6] Gatehouse, K. (2007). Key Issues in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Curriculum
Development. Kristen Gatehouse khoey, www.khae-service.com.
European Journal of Social Sciences – Vol 40 Issue 4 (2013) 627

[7] Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centered

approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
[8] Mackay, R., & Mountford, A. (Eds.). (1978). English for Specific Purposes: A case study
approach. London, UK: Longman Press.
[9] Perren, G. (1974). Forward in Teaching languages to adults for special purposes. CILT Reports
and Papers, 11, London: CILT.
[10] Robinson, P. (1980). ESP: The current position. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
[11] Strevens, P. (1988). "ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal". In: M. Tickoo, (Ed.), ESP: State
of the Art (pp. 1-13). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Centre.
[12] Strevens, P. (1980). Teaching English as an international language: From practice to principle.
Oxford and New York, UK & USA: Pergamon Press.
[13] Swales, J. (1990). Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
[14] Trimble, L. (1985). English for science and technology: A discourse approach. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
[15] Widdowson, H. (1983). Learning purpose and language use. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press.
[16] Widdowson. H. (1981), "English for Specific Purposes: Criteria for Course Design". In: L.
Selinker et al. (eds.), English for Academic and Technical Purposes: Studies in Honor of Louid
Trimble, (pp.1-2). London: Newbury House.
[17] Wright, T. (1987). "Instructional task and discoursal outcome". In: C. CandIin, & D. Murphy,
(Eds.), Language learning tasks (pp. 47-68). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
References
[1] Anthony, L. (1997). English for Specific Purposes: What does it mean? Why is it different? CUE, 5 (3), pp. 9-10.
[2] Carver, D. (1983). Some propositions about ESP. The ESP Journal, 2 (2), pp.
131-137. [3] Dudley-Evans, T. (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
[4] Dudley-Evans, T. (1997). An Overview of ESP in the 1990s. In: The Japan Conference on English for Specific Purposes Proceedings. (Aizuwakamatsu City, Fukushima, Japan, November 8).
[5] Dudley-Evans, T. (1993) “The debate over Milton Friedman’s theoretical framework: an applied linguist's view”. In: W. Henderson, T. Dudley-Evans, & R. Backhouse, (eds.), Economics and Language (pp. 132-152). London: Routledge.
[6] Gatehouse, K. (2007). Key Issues in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Curriculum Development. Kristen Gatehouse khoey, www.khae-service.com. European Journal of Social Sciences – Vol 40 Issue 4 (2013) 627
[7] Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centered approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
[8] Mackay, R., & Mountford, A. (Eds.). (1978). English for Specific Purposes: A case study approach. London, UK: Longman Press.
[9] Perren, G. (1974). Forward in Teaching languages to adults for special purposes. CILT Reports and Papers, 11, London: CILT.

[11] Strevens, P. (1988). "ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal". In: M. Tickoo, (Ed.), ESP: State of the Art (pp. 1-13). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Centre.

[12] Strevens, P. (1980). Teaching English as an international language: From practice to principle. Oxford and New York, UK & USA: Pergamon Press.
[13] Swales, J. (1990). Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
[14] Trimble, L. (1985). English for science and technology: A discourse approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
[15] Widdowson, H. (1983). Learning purpose and language use. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
[16] Widdowson. H. (1981), "English for Specific Purposes: Criteria for Course Design". In: L. Selinker et al. (eds.), English for Academic and Technical Purposes: Studies in Honor of Louid Trimble, (pp.1-2). London: Newbury House.
[17] Wright, T. (1987). "Instructional task and discoursal outcome". In: C. CandIin, & D. Murphy, (Eds.), Language learning tasks (pp. 47-68). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.