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partitive article
indefinite article
Abkhaz	a-		-k
Afrikaans	die		'n
Albanian	-a, -ja, -i, -u, -t, -të (all suffixes)	disa	një
Arabic	al- or el ال‎ (prefix)		-n
Assamese	-tû, -ta, -ti, -khôn, -khini, -zôn, -zôni, -dal, -zûpa etc.		êta, êkhôn, êzôn, êzôni, êdal, êzûpa etc.
Bangla	-টা, -টি, -গুলো, -রা, -খানা		একটি, একটা, কোন
Breton	an, al, ar		un, ul, ur
Bulgarian	-та, -то, -ът, -ят, -те		един/някакъв, една/някаква, едно/някакво, едни/някакви
Catalan	el, la, l', els, les ses, lo, los, es, sa		un, una uns, unes
Cornish	an
Danish	Singular: -en, -n -et, -t (all suffixes) Plural: -ene, -ne (all suffixes)		en, et
Dutch	de, het ('t); archaic since 1945/46 but still used in names and idioms: des, der, den		een ('n)
English	the		a, an
Esperanto	la
Finnish (colloquial)^[a]	se		yks(i)
French	le, la, l', les	du, de, d', de la, des, de l'	un, une, des
German	der, die, das des, dem, den		ein, eine, einer, eines einem, einen
Greek	ο, η, το οι, οι, τα		ένας, μια, ένα
Hawaiian	ka, ke nā		he
Hebrew	ha- ה (prefix)
Hungarian	a, az		egy
Icelandic	-(i)nn, -(i)n, -(i)ð, -(i)na, -num, -(i)nni, -nu, -(i)ns, -(i)nnar, -nir, -nar, -(u)num, -nna (all suffixes)
Interlingua	le		un
Irish	an, na, a' (used colloquially)
Italian	il, lo, la, l' i, gli, le	del, dello, della, dell' dei, degli, degl' , delle	un', uno, una, un
Khasi	u, ka, i ki
Kurdish	-eke -ekan	hendê, birrê	-êk -anêk
Latin
Luxembourgish	den, déi (d'), dat (d') dem, der	däers/es, däer/er	en, eng engem, enger
Macedonian	-от -ов -он -та -ва -на -то -во -но -те -ве -не -та -ва -на (all suffixes)	неколку	еден една едно едни
Manx	y, yn, 'n, ny
Maltese	(i)l-, (i)ċ-, (i)d-, (i)n-, (i)r-, (i)s-, (i)t-, (i)x-, (i)z-, (i)ż- (all prefixes)
Norwegian (Bokmål)	Singular: -en, -et, -a (all suffixes) Plural: -ene, -a (all suffixes)		en, et, ei
Norwegian (Nynorsk)	Singular: -en, -et, -a (all suffixes) Plural: -ane, -ene, -a (all suffixes)		ein, eit, ei
Papiamento	e		un
Pashto			yaow, yaowə, yaowa, yaowey يو, يوهٔ, يوه, يوې
Persian			yek (1)
Portuguese	o, a os, as		um, uma uns, umas
Quenya	i, in, 'n
Romanian	-(u)l, -le, -(u)a -(u)lui, -i, -lor (all suffixes)		un, o unui, unei niște, unor
Scots	the		a
Scottish Gaelic	an, am, a', na, nam, nan
Sindarin	i, in, -in, -n, en
Spanish	el, la, lo, los, las		un, una unos, unas
Swedish	Singular: -en, -n, -et, -t (all suffixes) Plural: -na, -a, -en (all suffixes)		en, ett

Articles are usually categorized as either definite or indefinite.[4] A few languages with well-developed systems of articles may distinguish additional subtypes. Within each type, languages may have various forms of each article, due to conforming to grammatical attributes such as gender, number, or case. Articles may also be modified as influenced by adjacent sounds or words as in elision (e.g., French "le" becoming "l'" before a vowel), epenthesis (e.g., English "a" becoming "an" before a vowel), or contraction (e.g. Irish "i + na" becoming "sna") used as an indefinite plural article. Visitors end up walking in mud. Variation among languages articles in languages in and around Europe indefinite and definite articles only definite articles indefinite and suffixed definite articles only suffixed definite articles no articles

Note that although the Saami languages spoken in northern parts of Norway and Sweden lack articles, Norwegian and Swedish are the majority languages in this area. Although the Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Welsh languages lack indefinite articles they too are minority languages in Ireland, Scotland and southern Wales, respectively, with English being the main spoken language.

Articles are found in many Indo-European languages, Semitic languages (only the definite article), and Polynesian languages; however, are formally absent from many of the world's major languages including: Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, many Turkic languages (incl. Tatar, Bashkir, Tuvan and Chuvash), many Uralic languages (incl. Finnic[a] and Saami languages), Indonesian, Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi, Tamil, the Baltic languages, the majority of Slavic languages, the Bantu languages (incl. Swahili) and Yoruba. In some languages that do have articles, such as some North Caucasian languages, the use of articles is optional; however, in others like English and German it is mandatory in all cases.

Linguists believe the common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, Proto-Indo-European, did not have articles. Most of the languages in this family do not have definite or indefinite articles: there is no article in Latin or Sanskrit, nor in some modern Indo-European languages, such as the families of Slavic languages (except for Bulgarian and Macedonian, which are rather distinctive among the Slavic languages in their grammar), Baltic languages and many Indo-Aryan languages. Although Classical Greek had a definite article (which has survived into Modern Greek and which bears strong functional resemblance to the German definite article, which it is related to), the earlier Homeric Greek used this article largely as a pronoun or demonstrative, whereas the earliest known form of Greek known as Mycenaean Greek did not have any articles. Articles developed independently in several language families.

Not all languages have both definite and indefinite articles, and some languages have different types of definite and indefinite articles to distinguish finer shades of meaning: for example, French and Italian have a partitive article used for indefinite mass nouns, whereas Colognian has two distinct sets of definite articles indicating focus and uniqueness, and Macedonian uses definite articles in a demonstrative sense, with a tripartite distinction (proximal, medial, distal) based on distance from the speaker or interlocutor. The words this and that (and their plurals, these and those) can be understood in English as, ultimately, forms of the definite article the (whose declension in Old English included thaes, an ancestral form of this/that and these/those).

In many languages, the form of the article may vary according to the gender, number, or case of its noun. In some languages the article may be the only indication of the case. Many languages do not use articles at all, and may use other ways of indicating old versus new information, such as topic–comment constructions.

2. The historical overview of articles

Although it is difficult to date the precise beginning of any language, English is thought to have had its origins around AD 400, when the Romans ended their occupation of England. After the Romans departed, England was populated by Romans who had stayed behind, Celts, and various Germanic tribes who had begun coming to England during the Roman occupation. In the years that followed, additional Germanic tribes from Western Europe and Scandinavia (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) continued to come to England through a series of invasions, pushing the Celts north and west to places such as Wales and Scotland and firmly establishing English as a Germanic language that in its earliest incarnation is known now as Old English (or Anglo-Saxon). Middle English (abbreviated to ME) was a form of the English language spoken after the Norman conquest (1066) until the late 15th century. English underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English period. Scholarly opinion varies, but the Oxford English Dictionary specifies the period when Middle English was spoken as being from 1150 to 1500. This stage of the development of the English language roughly followed the High to the Late Middle Ages, Middle English saw significant changes to its vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and orthography. Writing conventions during the Middle English period varied widely. Examples of writing from this period that have survived show extensive regional variation. The more standardized Old English language became fragmented, localized, and was, for the most part, being improvised. By the end of the period (about 1470) and aided by the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1439, a standard based on the London dialect (Chancery Standard) had become established. This largely formed the basis for Modern English spelling, although pronunciation has changed considerably since that time. Middle English was succeeded in England by the era of Early Modern English, which lasted until about 1650. During the Middle English period, many Old English grammatical features either became simplified or disappeared altogether. Noun, adjective and verb inflections were simplified by the reduction (and eventual elimination) of most grammatical case distinctions. Middle English also saw considerable adoption of Norman French vocabulary, especially in the areas of politics, law, the arts, and religion. Conventional English vocabulary remained primarily Germanic in its sources, with Old Norse influences becoming more apparent. Significant changes in pronunciation took place, particularly involving long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later Middle English period began to undergo the Great Vowel Shift.

Little survives of early Middle English literature, due in part to Norman domination and the prestige that came with writing in French rather than English. During the 14th century, a new style of literature emerged with the works of writers including John Wycliffe and Geoffrey Chaucer, whose Canterbury Tales remains one of the most studied and read works of the period.

Scots developed concurrently from a variant of the Northumbrian dialect (prevalent in northern England and spoken in southeast Scotland). Although it is difficult to date the precise beginning of any language, English is thought to have had its origins around AD 400, when the Romans ended their occupation of England. After the Romans departed, England was populated by Romans who had stayed behind, Celts, and various Germanic tribes who had begun coming to England during the Roman occupation. In the years that followed, additional Germanic tribes from Western Europe and Scandinavia (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) continued to come to England through a series of invasions, pushing the Celts north and west to places such as Wales and Scotland and firmly establishing English as a Germanic language that in its earliest incarnation is known now as Old English (or Anglo-Saxon). In Middle English, the (þe) was frequently abbreviated as a þ with a small e above it, similar to the abbreviation for that, which was a þ with a small t above it. During the latter Middle English and Early Modern English periods, the letter thorn (þ) in its common script, or cursive, form came to resemble a y shape. As a result, the use of a y with an e above it () as an abbreviation became common. It can still be seen in reprints of the 1611 edition of the King James Version of the Bible in places such as Romans 15:29 or in the Mayflower Compact. Historically, the article was never pronounced with a y sound even when it was so written An is the older form (related to one, cognate to German ein; etc.). The most important linguistic developments

Two very important linguistic developments characterize Middle English:

1. In grammar, English came to rely less on inflectional endings and more on word order to convey grammatical information. (If we put this in more technical terms, it became less ‘synthetic’ and more ‘analytic’.) Change was gradual, and has different outcomes in different regional varieties of Middle English, but the ultimate effects were huge: the grammar of English 1500 was radically different from that of Old English. Grammatical gender was lost early in Middle English. The range of inflections, particularly in the noun, was reduced drastically (partly as a result of reduction of vowels in unstressed final syllables), as was the number of distinct paradigms: in most early Middle English texts most nouns have distinctive forms only for singular vs. plural, genitive, and occasional traces of the old dative in forms with final – occurring after a preposition. In some other parts of the system some distinctions were more persistent, but by late Middle English the range of endings and their use among London writers shows relatively few differences from the sixteenth-century language of, for example, Shakespeare: probably the most prominent morphological difference from Shakespeare’s language is that verb plurals and infinitives still generally ended in –en (at least in writing).

2. In vocabulary, English became much more heterogeneous, showing many borrowings from French, Latin, and Scandinavian. Large-scale borrowing of new words often had serious consequences for the meanings and the stylistic register of those words which survived from Old English. Eventually, various new stylistic layers emerged in the lexicon, which could be employed for a variety of different purposes. Up until about the middle of the fourteenth century, our surviving written records for Middle English of any variety are patchy, and can be characterized as a number of more or less isolated ‘islands’ of usage, reflecting the English of particular communities or even individuals who felt motivated, for various different reasons, to write something down in English. We have some substantial literary texts, such as the Ormulum or the Ancrene Wisse (both of which we will look at more closely below); in a very few cases, like the Ancrene Wisse and a small group of texts in a very similar language apparently from a very similar milieu, we can identify mini-traditions of English writing; but what we do not have are clear, well-established, persistent traditions of writing in English (whether for literary or non-literary purposes) from which any sort of standard written variety could grow.

From the later fourteenth century our records become more plentiful, especially for London, as the use of English increased in literary contexts and in a variety of different technical and official functions. English began more and more to be the default choice for major (broadly metropolitan) literary writers such as, in the late fourteenth century, Geoffrey Chaucer, John Gower (who still also wrote major poems in French and Latin), and (although his milieu was rather different) William Langland. We also continue to find substantial literary works from parts of the country far removed from London, and reflecting very distinct local varieties of English, such as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.

In this same period religious writings in English become more and more common; these include the first complete English translation of the Bible, the Wycliffite Bible, which emerged from the circle of followers of the reformer John Wyclif. We also find increasing numbers of scientific and medical texts written in English.

As it came to share and, eventually, take over various functions from Latin and French, English was hugely influenced by these languages, in its stock of word forms, in the meanings these words showed, and in the phrases and structures in which they were used. Thus the vocabulary of such fields as law, government,

business, and religion (among many others) became filled with words of Latin or French origin, as people began using English to express technical matters which had previously been the domain of Latin or French.


3.The usage of articles in modern English

An article (with the linguistic glossing abbreviation ART) is a word that is used with a noun (as a standalone word or a prefix or suffix) to specify grammatical definiteness of the noun, and in some languages extending to volume or numerical scope.

The articles in English grammar are the and a/an, and in certain contexts some. "An" and "a" are modern forms of the Old English "an", which in Anglian dialects was the number "one" (compare "on" in Saxon dialects) and survived into Modern Scots as the number "owan". Both "on" (respelled "one" by the Norman language) and "an" survived into Modern English, with "one" used as the number and "an" ("a", before nouns that begin with a consonant sound) as an indefinite article.

In English grammar, articles are frequently considered part of a broader category called determiners, which contains articles, demonstratives (such as "this" and "that"), possessive determiners (such as "my" and "his"), and quantifiers (such as "all" and "few").^[1] Articles and other determiners are also sometimes counted as a type of adjective, since they describe the words that they precede.^[2]

Here there are some information about determiners in English. In English grammar, a determiner is a word or a group of words that specifies, identifies, or quantifies the noun or noun phrase that follows it. It is also known as a prenominal modifier. Basically, determiners come at the start of a noun phrase and tell more about what comes after it (or them, in the case of a phrase that has more than one determiner before the noun). Determiners include articles (a, an, the), cardinal numbers (one, two, three...) and ordinal numbers (first, second, third...), demonstratives (this, that, these, those), partitives (some of, piece of, and others), quantifiers (most, all, and others), difference words (other, another), and possessive determiners (my, your, his, her, its, our, their).

Authors Martha Kolln and Robert Funk describe them this way: "Determiners signal nouns in a variety of ways: They may define the relationship of the noun to the speaker or listener (or reader); they may identify the noun as specific or general; they may quantify it specifically or refer to quantity in general." ("Understanding English Grammar," 5th ed. Allyn and Bacon, 1998)