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Video lecture at Oriental Institute – Tracking the Frontiers of the Hittite Empire Hattusas/Bogazköy Arzawa, to the west, throws light on Hittites Pictures of Boğazköy, one of a group of important sites Pictures of Yazılıkaya, one of a group of important sites Der Anitta Text (at TITUS) Tahsin Ozguc Hittites.info Hittite Period in Anatolia Hethitologieportal Mainz, by the Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mainz, corpus of texts and extensive bibliographies on all things Hittite hittites area in cappadocia Uşaklı Höyük Xet xalqlari Vikipediya, ochiq ensiklopediya Navigatsiyaga o'tish Xattilar bilan aralashmaslik kerak. Xet imperiyasi v. Mil. Av. 1600-yillar. Mil. Av. 1178 y Xet imperiyasi, v. Mil. Av. 1300 (ko'k rangda ko'rsatilgan) Xet imperiyasi, v. Mil. Av. 1300 (ko'k rangda ko'rsatilgan) Sarmoya Hattusa Xet, Luwian, Akkad, Hattik tillari Hukumat Mutlaq monarxiya (Eski shohlik) Konstitutsiyaviy monarxiya (O'rta va yangi qirollik) [1] Shoh Bronza davriga oid tarixiy davr • Tashkil etilgan v. Miloddan avvalgi 1600 yil • yo'q qilindi v. Mil. Av. 1178 y Oldindan amalga oshirilgan Kanesh
Syro-xet davlatlari Bugun Turkiyaning bir qismi Suriya Livan
Bir qator seriyali Turkiyaning tarixi Kichik Osiyo va Kavkaziyadagi Turkiya, 1921 Prehistorik [ko'rsat] Bronza yoshi [show] Temir zamonning [show] Klassik yosh [ko'rsatish] O'rta asr yoshi [ko'rsatish] Usmonli davri Turkiya Respublikasi [show] Mavzu bo'yicha [show] O'zbekiston Respublikasi bayrog'i vte Xetliklar (/ hɪtaɪts /) miloddan avvalgi 1600-yillarda shimoliy-sharqiy Anatoliyadagi Xattusada markazlashgan imperiya tuzishda muhim rol o'ynagan Anatoliy xalq edi. Ushbu imperiya miloddan avvalgi 14-asrning o'rtalariga kelib, Suppiluliuma I davrida, Anatoliyaning ko'p qismini, shuningdek, shimoliy Levant va Yuqori Mesopotamiya qismlarini o'z ichiga olgan maydonni qamrab olgan. Miloddan avvalgi 15-dan 13-asrlar mobaynida Xattush imperiyasi imperiyasi Misr imperiyasi, O'rta asriy imperiyasi va Yaqin Sharqni nazorat qilish uchun Mitanni imperiyasi bilan to'qnashdi. Ossuriyaliklar oxir-oqibatda dominant kuch bo'lib, Xet imperiyasining ko'p qismini qo'shib qo'yishgan, qolganlari mintaqaga Frigiyalik yangi kelganlar tomonidan ishdan olingan. V. Miloddan avvalgi 1180 yil bronza davridagi qulash davri mobaynida Xetliklar bir necha mustaqil "neo-xet" shaharlariga bo'lingan bo'lib, ularning ba'zilari mil.av. 8 asrgacha yashab, Neo-Assuriya imperiyasi oldida qolib ketishdi. Xet tili Hind-Evropa tilidagi oilaning Anatoliya bo'linmasining alohida a'zosi bo'lib, u bilan bog'liq Luwian tili bilan bir qatorda tarixiy ravishda Hind-Yevropa tilining eng qadimgi tili hisoblanadi. [2] Xet xalqlari o'z ona tilini "Nesa tilida" neşili deb atashadi, lekin ona yurtini Xattusa qiroli (Akkaddagi Hatti) deb atashadi. "Xetliklar" ning an'anaviy nomi XIX asr arxeologiyasida Xit xalqlari bilan dastlabki identifikatsiya qilishlari bilan bog'liq. Xattusaning nomini ishlatishlariga qaramasdan, Xet xalqi Hattusa hududini (eramizgacha miloddan avvalgi II ming yillikning boshiga qadar) yashagan va Hattik deb atalmaydigan tilda gaplashgan Xattaliklardan ajralib turishi kerak edi. ]111111 Xet tsivilizatsiyasining tarixi asosan o'z qirolliklari hududida topilgan mixxat matnlaridan, shuningdek, Ossuriya, Bobil, Misr va Yaqin Sharqdagi turli xil arxivlardagi diplomatik va tijorat xatlaridan ma'lum bo'lib, unda parchalanish muhim voqeadir Hind-evropa tilshunosligi tarixida. Xet askarlari jang aravalarini muvaffaqiyatli ishlatishgan [4] va bronza davrga qaramasdan, Xetliklar temir asrining oldingi davrlari bo'lib, miloddan avvalgi XVIII asrda temir buyumlar ishlab chiqarishni rivojlantirdilar; Bu vaqtda, Anitta matnida "Kan'shit shohi Anitta" ga temir taxt va "temir taxtasi" bo'lgan "Burushanda odamidan" sovg'alar yozilgan edi. Xet imperiyasi miloddan avvalgi XII asrning boshlarida bronza zamonining yiqilishi qurboni bo'ldi. Etnik xet sultonlari zamonaviy Suriya, Livan va Isroil atrofida tarqalgan kichik qirolliklarda omon qoldi. Birlashtiruvchi uzluksizligining yo'qligi ularning avlodlari tarqalgan va oxir-oqibat Levant, Turkiya va Mesopotamiyaning zamonaviy aholisi bilan birlashtirilgan [5]. 1920 yillar mobaynida Xet xalqiga qiziqish Turkiya zamonaviy Respublikasining tashkil etilishi bilan ortdi va turk arxeologlari Halet Çambel va Tahsin Özgüç kabi diqqatga sazovor bo'ldi. Hititologiyaning yangi sohasi shu davrda davlatga tegishli Etibank ("Xet bank"), 6-sonli Anqara madaniyatlari muzeyining ta'sis etilishiga ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Hitit poytaxti va dunyodagi eng keng tarqalgan Xet san'at va asarlari ko'rgazmasida yashaydi. Mundarija 1 Arxeologik kashfiyot 1.1 Injil fon 1.2 Dastlabki kashfiyotlar 1.3 Yozuvlar 1.4 Muzeylar 2 Geografiya 3 Tarix 3.1 Origins 3.2 Erta davr 3.3 Eski Shohlik 3.4 Yaqin Shohlik 3.5 Yangi Shohlik 3.5.1 Kadesh urushi 3.5.2. Shohlikni yo'q qilish va yo'q qilish 3.6 Syro-Xet podshohligi 4 Hukumat 4.1 Erta Hitit hukumatidagi diniy nazorat o'rnatish 4.2 Qadimgi Qirollikdagi siyosiy qarashlar 4.3 Pankus 5 Til
6-modda 7 Din va mifologiya 8 Qonun 8.1 Qonunlardan foydalanish 8.2 Qonunni isloh qilish 8.3 Qonunlar namunalari 9 Injil Xet xalqi Shuningdek qarang 11 Resurslar 12 Adabiyot 13 Qo'shimcha ma'lumot 14 Tashqi havolalar Arxeologik kashfiyot [tahrir] Uchinchi ming yilgacha bo'lgan Xet bitimi oldidan, Alaca Höyük bronza standartlaridan biri Anatoliya madaniyatlari muzeyidan, Anqara. Biblical fon [tahrir] Shuningdek qarang: Injil Xetlari Xet tsivilizatsiyasini ochgan arxeologik topilmalar oldidan, Xet xalqlari haqidagi yagona ma'lumot Eski Ahd edi. Frensis Uilyam Nyuman XIX asrning boshlarida umumiy "Xet podshohi Yahudiya Podshohi bilan hukmronlik qila olmagan" degan tanqidiy fikrni ifodaladi. [7] 19-asrning ikkinchi yarmida kashfiyotlar sifatida Xet podshohligining miqyosini ochib tashlagan Archibald Seys, Yahudo bilan taqqoslagandan ko'ra, Kichik Osiyo tsivilizatsiyasi «bo'lingan Misr shohligiga taqqoslashga loyiq edi» va «Yahudodan farqli ravishda qudratli» edi. 8] Sayce va boshqa olimlar, shuningdek, Yahudo va Xet xalqlari ibroniycha matnlarda hech qachon dushman emasligini qayd etdilar; Shohlar kitobi kitobida Isroil xalqini sadr, jang aravalari va otlar bilan ta'minlashgan. Ibtido kitobi Ibrohimga do'st va ittifoqdosh bo'lgan. Xetlik Uriyo shoh Dovudning qo'shinida sardor bo'lgan va 1 Solnomalar 11-bobida o'zining "qudratli odamlaridan biri" hisoblangan. Boshlang'ich kashfiyotlar [tahrir] Anatoliya madaniyatlari muzeyidagi hayvonlarning bronza xet haykali. Fransiya olimi Charles Texier [18] [6] Xet xalqining ilk arxeologik dalillari Kanesh (hozirgi Kultepe) ning karomida joylashgan planshetlarda paydo bo'lib, unda Ossuriy savdogarlari bilan savdo-sotiq yozuvlari mavjud edi. "Hatti mamlakati". Tabletkalardagi ba'zi ismlar na Hattik, na Ossuriya edi, balki Hind-Evropa edi. [18] 1884 yilda Uilyam Rayt tomonidan kashf etilgan "Hattusas xalqi" tomonidan Boğazkale yodgorligiga oid yozuvni Aleppodan o'ziga xos ieroglif yozuvlari Hama Shimoliy Suriyada. 1887 yili Misrdagi Amarnada qazishmalar fir'avn Amenhotep III va uning o'g'li Akhenatenning diplomatik yozishmalarini ochib berdi. "Xetaniya shohligi" ning ikkita maktubi, xuddi o'sha umumiy mintaqada Mesopotamiyadagi "Xatti erlari" ga havola qilingan, aslida Akkad yozuvi yozuvida yozilgan, ammo noma'lum tilda yozilgan; olimlar buni o'qishlari mumkin edi, ammo hech kim uni tushunolmadi. Bundan ko'p o'tmay, Archibald Seys, Xatti yoki Xatti Anatoliyada, bu Misr matinida aytib o'tilgan "Xetaning shohligi" bilan bir qatorda, Xit xalqlari bilan ham o'xshashligini aytdi. Boshqalar Max Myuller kabi, Xatti, ehtimol, Kheta, deb qabul qilgan, lekin Biblical Xet xalqiga emas, balki Muqaddas Kittim bilan bog'lashni taklif qilgan. Seysining identifikatsiyasi 20-asrning boshlarida keng tan olingan edi; va "Xet" nomi Boğazköy'de ochilgan madaniyatga ulanadi. Hattusa'da Sfenks darvozasi kirish. 1906'da boshlangan Bogazköy'de (Hattusa), bir davrda olib borilgan qazishmalarda, arxeolog Hugo Winckler 10,000 tabletkalari bilan shoh arxivini topdi , Akkad yozuvida yozilgan va Xetadan misrlik harflar bilan bir xil noma'lum tilda yozilgan bo'lib, bu ikki ismning kimligini tasdiqlaydi. Bundan tashqari, Boğazköy'deki qoldiqlar, bir nuqtada, Suriya shimolida nazorat ostiga olingan bir imperiya poytaxti qoldiqlari ekanligini isbotladi. Germaniya Arxeologiya instituti yo'nalishi bo'yicha Hattuşa'daki kazılar 1907 yildan beri davom etmoqda. jahon urushlari. Kultepe, professor Tahsin Özgüç'ün, 1948 yildan boshlab o'limiga qadar, 1948 yildan muvaffaqiyatli qazilmalar qilingan. Hattuşa'nın atrofida, shu jumladan, Yazıtayaya'nın tosh uyi, Hitit hukmdorlari va xudolarni tasvirlangan ko'p sonli tosh tog'larni ham o'z ichiga olgan kichik miqyosda qazish ishlari amalga oshirildi Hitit panteonlari. Xit mualliflari Xet temirsi deb atalgan mixxatning variatsiyasidan foydalanganlar. Xattusga oid arxeologik ekspeditsiyalar, qirollik arxivlarining butun majmuasini, vaqtning diplomatik tilida, yoki Xet konfederatsiyasining turli tillarida yozgan mixxatli planshetlarda topdi. [11] Muzeylar [tahrir] Kichik Osiyo madaniyatlari muzeyidan zargarlik Anqara Anatoliya Madaniyatlari muzeyi, Turkiya, Xet va Anatoliy asarlarining eng boy kollekssiyasiga ega. Geografiya [tahrir] Hattudagi eski shohlikda topilgan Hurri (Day) va Seri (Night) deb nomlangan muqaddas buqalar shakli (XVI asr) Anatoliya madaniyatlari muzeyi, Anqara.Xet imperiyasining eng katta qismi (mil. 1350-1322) va Murshili II (1321-1295 mil.) Asosiy maqola: Xet podshohligi "Xatti" (URUHa-at-ti) deb nomlanuvchi Hattusa va Neša (Kültepe) atrofidagi erlarda. Hattuşa'nın poytaxti qilinganidan so'ng, Kızılırmak daryosi (Hitit Marassantiya) ning egri bilan qoplangan maydon, imperiyaning yadrosi hisoblanadi va ayrim Xet qonunlari "daryoning bu tomoni" va "daryoning bu tomoni" o'rtasida farq qiladi ". Misol uchun, qochilgan qulni qo'lga kiritganidan so'ng, u mukofotni qo'lga kiritdi Превышено максимальное число символов 5000/5000 Максимально допустимое число символов (5000) превышено на 47899: ПЕРЕВОДИТЬ ДАЛЬШЕ ablets that may first have been written in the 17th century BC, possibly in Hittite;[30] but survived only as Akkadian copies made in the 14th and 13th centuries BC. These reveal a rivalry within two branches of the royal family up to the Middle Kingdom; a northern branch first based in Zalpuwa and secondarily Hattusa, and a southern branch based in Kussara (still not found) and the former Assyrian colony of Kanesh. These are distinguishable by their names; the northerners retained language isolate Hattian names, and the southerners adopted Indo-European Hittite and Luwian names.[31]Zalpuwa first attacked Kanesh under Uhna in 1833 BC.[32]One set of tablets, known collectively as the Anitta text,[33] begin by telling how Pithana the king of Kussara conquered neighbouring Neša (Kanesh).[34] However, the real subject of these tablets is Pithana's son Anitta (r. 1745–1720 BC),[35] who continued where his father left off and conquered several northern cities: including Hattusa, which he cursed, and also Zalpuwa. This was likely propaganda for the southern branch of the royal family, against the northern branch who had fixed on Hattusa as capital.[36] Another set, the Tale of Zalpuwa, supports Zalpuwa and exonerates the later Ḫattušili I from the charge of sacking Kanesh.[36]Anitta was succeeded by Zuzzu (r. 1720–1710 BC);[35] but sometime in 1710–1705 BC, Kanesh was destroyed, taking the long-established Assyrian merchant trading system with it.[32] A Kussaran noble family survived to contest the Zalpuwan/Hattusan family, though whether these were of the direct line of Anitta is uncertain.[37]Meanwhile, the lords of Zalpa lived on. Huzziya I, descendant of a Huzziya of Zalpa, took over Hatti. His son-in-law Labarna I, a southerner from Hurma (now Kalburabastı) usurped the throne but made sure to adopt Huzziya's grandson Ḫattušili as his own son and heir.Old Kingdom[edit]Hattusa rampThe founding of the Hittite Kingdom is attributed to either Labarna I or Hattusili I (the latter might also have had Labarna as a personal name),[38] who conquered the area south and north of Hattusa. Hattusili I campaigned as far as the Semitic Amorite kingdom of Yamkhad in Syria, where he attacked, but did not capture, its capital of Aleppo. Hattusili I did eventually capture Hattusa and was credited for the foundation of the Hittite Empire. According to The Edict of Telepinu, which dates back to the 16th century BC, "Hattusili was king, and his sons, brothers, in-laws, family members, and troops were all united. Wherever he went on campaign he controlled the enemy land with force. He destroyed the lands one after the other, took away their power, and made them the borders of the sea. When he came back from campaign, however, each of his sons went somewhere to a country, and in his hand the great cities prospered. But, when later the princes’ servants became corrupt, they began to devour the properties, conspired constantly against their masters, and began to shed their blood.” This excerpt from the edict is supposed to illustrate the unification, growth, and prosperity of the Hittites under his rule. It also illustrates the corruption of "the princes" who are believed to be his sons. The corruption is dealt with, however, the lack of sources leads to uncertainty with how the corruption was dealt with. On Hattusili I's deathbed, he chose his grandson, Mursuli I, as his heir.[39] Mursili I conquered that city in a campaign conducted against the Amorites in 1595 BC (middle chronology). Also in 1595 BC, Mursili I (or Murshilish I) conducted a great raid down the Euphrates River, bypassing Assyria and captured Mari and Babylonia, ejecting the Amorite founders of the Babylonian state in the process. However, the Hittite campaigns caused internal dissension which forced a withdrawal of troops to the Hittite homelands. Throughout the remainder of the 16th century BC, the Hittite kings were held to their homelands by dynastic quarrels and warfare with the Hurrians—their neighbours to the east.[40] Also the campaigns into Amurru (modern Syria) and southern Mesopotamia may be responsible for the reintroduction of cuneiform writing into Anatolia, since the Hittite script is quite different from the script of the preceding Assyrian Colonial period.Mursili continued the conquests of Hattusili I. Mursili's conquests reached southern Mesopotamia and even ransacked Babylon itself in 1531 BC (short chronology).[41] Rather than incorporate Babylonia into Hittite domains, Mursili seems to have instead turned control of Babylonia over to his Kassite allies, who were to rule it for the next four centuries. This lengthy campaign, however, strained the resources of Hatti, and left the capital in a state of near-anarchy. Mursili was assassinated shortly after his return home, and the Hittite Kingdom was plunged into chaos. The Hurrians (under the control of an Indo-Aryan Mitanni ruling class), a people living in the mountainous region along the upper Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern south east Turkey, took advantage of the situation to seize Aleppo and the surrounding areas for themselves, as well as the coastal region of Adaniya, renaming it Kizzuwatna (later Cilicia).Following this, the Hittites entered a weak phase of obscure records, insignificant rulers, and reduced area of control. This pattern of expansion under strong kings followed by contraction under weaker ones, was to be repeated over and over again throughout the Hittite Kingdom's 500-year history, making events during the waning periods difficult to reconstruct with much precision. The political instability of these years of the Old Hittite Kingdom, can be explained in part by the nature of the Hittite kingship at that time. During the Old Hittite Kingdom period prior to 1400 BC, the king of the Hittites was not viewed by the Hittite citizenry as a "living god", like the Pharaohs of Egypt, but rather as a first among equals.[42] Only in the later period of the Hittite Empire, from 1400 BC until 1200 BC, did the kingship of the Hittites become more centralized and powerful. Also in earlier years the succession was not legally fixed, enabling the "war of the Roses" style rivalries between northern and southern branches.The next monarch of any note following Mursili I was Telepinu (c. 1500 BC), who won a few victories to the southwest, apparently by allying himself with one Hurrian state (Kizzuwatna) against another (Mitanni). Telepinu also attempted to secure the lines of succession.[43]Middle Kingdom[edit]Twelve Hittite gods of the Underworld in the nearby Yazılıkaya, a sanctuary of HattusaThe last monarch of the Old kingdom, Telepinu, reigned until about 1500 BC. Telepinu's reign marked the end of the "Old Kingdom" and the beginning of the lengthy weak phase known as the "Middle Kingdom".[44] The period of the 15th century BC is largely unknown with very sparse surviving records.[45] Part of the reason for both the weakness and the obscurity is that the Hittites were under constant attack, mainly from the Kaska, a non Indo-European people settled along the shores of the Black Sea. The capital once again went on the move, first to Sapinuwa and then to Samuha. There is an archive in Sapinuwa but it has not been adequately translated to date.It segues into the "Hittite Empire period" proper, which dates from the reign of Tudhaliya I from c. 1430 BC.One innovation that can be credited to these early Hittite rulers is the practice of conducting treaties and alliances with neighboring states; the Hittites were thus among the earliest known pioneers in the art of international politics and diplomacy. This is also when the Hittite religion adopted several gods and rituals from the Hurrians.New Kingdom[edit]Tudhaliya IV (relief in Hattusa)Hittite monument, an exact replica of monument from Fasıllar in Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara.With the reign of Tudhaliya I (who may actually not have been the first of that name; see also Tudhaliya), the Hittite Kingdom re-emerged from the fog of obscurity. Hittite civilization entered the period of time called the "Hittite Empire period". Many changes were afoot during this time, not the least of which was a strengthening of the kingship. Settlement of the Hittites progressed in the Empire period.[42] However, the Hittite people tended to settle in the older lands of south Anatolia rather than the lands of the Aegean. As this settlement progressed, treaties were signed with neighboring peoples.[42] During the Hittite Empire period the kingship became hereditary and the king took on a "superhuman aura" and began to be referred to by the Hittite citizens as "My Sun". The kings of the Empire period began acting as a high priest for the whole kingdom—making an annual tour of the Hittite holy cities, conducting festivals and supervising the upkeep of the sanctuaries.[42]During his reign (c. 1400 BC), King Tudhaliya I, again allied with Kizzuwatna, then vanquished the Hurrian states of Aleppo and Mitanni, and expanded to the west at the expense of Arzawa (a Luwian state).Another weak phase followed Tudhaliya I, and the Hittites' enemies from all directions were able to advance even to Hattusa and raze it. However, the Kingdom recovered its former glory under Suppiluliuma I (c. 1350 BC), who again conquered Aleppo, Mitanni was reduced to vassalage by the Assyrians under his son-in-law, and he defeated Carchemish, another Amorite city-state. With his own sons placed over all of these new conquests, Babylonia still in the hands of the allied Kassites, this left Suppiluliuma the supreme power broker in the known world, alongside Assyria and Egypt, and it was not long before Egypt was seeking an alliance by marriage of another of his sons with the widow of Tutankhamen. Unfortunately, that son was evidently murdered before reaching his destination, and this alliance was never consummated. However, the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BC) once more began to grow in power also, with the ascension of Ashur-uballit I in 1365 BC. Ashur-uballit I attacked and defeated Mattiwaza the Mitanni king despite attempts by the Hittite king Suppiluliumas I, now fearful of growing Assyrian power, attempting to preserve his throne with military support. The lands of the Mitanni and Hurrians were duly appropriated by Assyria, enabling it to encroach on Hittite territory in eastern Asia Minor, and Adad-nirari I annexed Carchemish and north east Syria from the control of the Hittites.[46]After Suppiluliumas I, and a very brief reign by his eldest son, another son, Mursili II became king (c. 1330). Having inherited a position of strength in the east, Mursili was able to turn his attention to the west, where he attacked Arzawa and a city known as Millawanda (Miletus) which was under the control of Ahhiyawa. More recent research based on new readings and interpretations of the Hittite texts, as well as of the material evidence for Mycenaean contacts with the Anatolian mainland, came to the conclusion that Ahhiyawa referred to Mycenaean Greece, or at least to a part of it.[47]Battle of Kadesh[edit]Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II storming the Hittite fortress of Dapur.Main article: Battle of KadeshHittite prosperity was mostly dependent on control of the trade routes and metal sources. Because of the importance of Northern Syria to the vital routes linking the Cilician gates with Mesopotamia, defense of this area was crucial, and was soon put to the test by Egyptian expansion under Pharaoh Ramesses II. The outcome of the battle is uncertain, though it seems that the timely arrival of Egyptian reinforcements prevented total Hittite victory.[48] The Egyptians forced the Hittites to take refuge in the fortress of Kadesh, but their own losses prevented them from sustaining a siege. This battle took place in the 5th year of Ramesses (c. 1274 BC by the most commonly used chronology).Downfall and demise of the Kingdom[edit]Egypto-Hittite Peace Treaty (c. 1258 BC) between Hattusili III and Ramesses II. Istanbul Archaeology MuseumChimera with a human head and a lion's head; Late Hittite period in Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, AnkaraAfter this date, the power of both the Hittites and Egyptians began to decline yet again because of the power of the Assyrians.[49] The Assyrian king Shalmaneser I had seized the opportunity to vanquish Hurria and Mitanni, occupy their lands, and expand up to the head of the Euphrates in Anatolia and into Babylonia, Ancient Iran, Aram (Syria), Canaan (Israel) and Phoenicia, while Muwatalli was preoccupied with the Egyptians. The Hittites had vainly tried to preserve the Mitanni kingdom with military support.[46] Assyria now posed just as great a threat to Hittite trade routes as Egypt ever had. Muwatalli's son, Urhi-Teshub, took the throne and ruled as king for 7 years as Mursili III before being ousted by his uncle, Hattusili III after a brief civil war. In response to increasing Assyrian annexation of Hittite territory, he concluded a peace and alliance with Rameses II (also fearful of Assyria), presenting his daughter's hand in marriage to the Pharaoh.[49] The "Treaty of Kadesh", one of the oldest completely surviving treaties in history, fixed their mutual boundaries in southern Canaan, and was signed in the 21st year of Rameses (c. 1258 BC). Terms of this treaty included the marriage of one of the Hittite princesses to the Pharaoh Rameses.[49][50]Hattusili's son, Tudhaliya IV, was the last strong Hittite king able to keep the Assyrians out of the Hittite heartland to some degree at least, though he too lost much territory to them, and was heavily defeated by Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria in the Battle of Nihriya. He even temporarily annexed the Greek island of Cyprus, before that too fell to Assyria. The very last king, Suppiluliuma II also managed to win some victories, including a naval battle against Alashiya off the coast of Cyprus.[51] But the Assyrians, under Ashur-resh-ishi I had by this time annexed much Hittite territory in Asia Minor and Syria, driving out and defeating the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar I in the process, who also had eyes on Hittite lands. The Sea Peoples had already begun their push down the Mediterranean coastline, starting from the Aegean, and continuing all the way to Canaan, founding the state of Philistia—taking Cilicia and Cyprus away from the Hittites en route and cutting off their coveted trade routes. This left the Hittite homelands vulnerable to attack from all directions, and Hattusa was burnt to the ground sometime around 1180 BC following a combined onslaught from new waves of invaders, the Kaskas, Phrygians and Bryges. The Hittite Kingdom thus vanished from historical records, much of the territory being seized by Assyria.[52] The end of the kingdom was part of the larger Bronze Age Collapse.Syro-Hittite Kingdoms[edit]Neo-Hittite storm god "Tarhunzas" in Aleppo museum.Main article: Syro-HittiteBy 1160 BC, the political situation in Asia Minor looked vastly different from that of only 25 years earlier. In that year, the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I was defeating the Mushku (Phrygians) who had been attempting to press into Assyrian colonies in southern Anatolia from the Anatolian highlands, and the Kaska people, the Hittites' old enemies from the northern hill-country between Hatti and the Black Sea, seem to have joined them soon after. The Phrygians had apparently overrun Cappadocia from the West, with recently discovered epigraphic evidence confirming their origins as the Balkan "Bryges" tribe, forced out by the Macedonians.Although the Hittite kingdom disappeared from Anatolia at this point, there emerged a number of so-called Neo-Hittite kingdoms in Anatolia and northern Syria. They were the successors of the Hittite Kingdom. The most notable Syrian Neo-Hittite kingdoms were those at Carchemish and Milid (near the later Melitene). These Neo-Hittite Kingdoms gradually fell under the control of the Neo Assyrian Empire (911–608 BC). Carchemish and Milid were made vassals of Assyria under Shalmaneser III (858–823 BC), and fully incorporated into Assyria during the reign of Sargon II (722–705 BC).A large and powerful state known as Tabal occupied much of southern Anatolia. Known as Gk. Τιβαρηνοί Tibarenoi, Lat. Tibareni, Thobeles in Josephus, their language may have been Luwian,[53] testified to by monuments written using Luwian hieroglyphics.[54] This state too was conquered and incorporated into the vast Assyrian Empire.Ultimately, both Luwian hieroglyphs and cuneiform were rendered obsolete by an innovation, the alphabet, which seems to have entered Anatolia simultaneously from the Aegean (with the Bryges, who changed their name to Phrygians), and from the Phoenicians and neighboring peoples in Syria.Government[edit]The head of the Hittite state was the king, followed by the heir-apparent. The king was the supreme ruler of the land, in charge of being a military commander, judicial authority, as well as a high priest.[55] However, some officials exercised independent authority over various branches of the government. One of the most important of these posts in the Hittite society was that of the Gal Mesedi (Chief of the Royal Bodyguards).[56] It was superseded by the rank of the Gal Gestin (Chief of the Wine Stewards), who, like the Gal Mesedi, was generally a member of the royal family. The kingdom's bureaucracy was headed by the Gal Dubsar (Chief of the Scribes), whose authority didn't extend over the Lugal Dubsar, the king's personal scribe.In Egyptian inscriptions dating back before the days of the Exodus, Egyptian monarchs were engaged with two chief seats, located at Kadesh (a Hittite city located on the Orontes River) and Carchemish (located on the Euphrates river in Southern Anatolia).[57]A map Illustrating Hittite Expansion and location of the Capital City HattusaReligion in Early Hittite Government to establish control[edit]In the Central Anatolian settlement of Ankuwa, home of the pre-Hittite goddess Kattaha and the worship of other Hattic deities illustrates the ethnic differences in the areas the Hittites tried to control. Kattaha was originally given the name Hannikkun. The usage of the term Kattaha over Hannikkun, according to Ronald Gorny (head of the Alisar regional project in Turkey), was a device to downgrade the Pre-Hittite identity of this female deity, and to bring her more in touch with the Hittite tradition. Their reconfiguration of Gods throughout their early history such as with Kattaha was a way of legitimizing their authority and to avoid conflicting ideologies in newly included regions and settlements. By transforming local deities to fit their own customs, the Hittites hoped that the traditional beliefs of these communities would understand and accept the changes to become better suited for the Hittite political and economic goals.[58]Political dissent in the Old Kingdom[edit]In 1595 BC, King Marsilis I (r. 1556–1526 BC) marched into the city of Babylon and sacked the city. Due to fear of revolts at home he did not remain there long, quickly returning to his capital of Hattusa. On his journey back to Hattusa he was assassinated by his brother-in-law Hantili I who then took the throne. Hantili was able to escape multiple murder attempts on himself, however, his family did not. His wife, Harapsili and her son were murdered. In addition, other members of the royal family were killed by Zindata I who was then murdered by his own son, Ammunna. All of the internal unrest among the Hittite royal family led to a decline of power. This led to surrounding kingdoms, such as the Hurrians, to have success against Hittite forces and be the center of power in the Anatolian region.[59]The Pankus[edit]King Telipinus (reigned c. 1525 – c. 1500 BC) is considered to be the last king of the Old Kingdom of the Hittites. He seized power during a dynastic power struggle. During his reign, he wanted to take care of lawlessness and regulate royal succession. He then issued the Edict of Telipinus. Within this edict, he designated the pankus, which was a "general assembly", that acted as a high court. Crimes such as murder were observed and judged by the Pankus. Kings were also subject to jurisdiction under the Pankus. The Pankus also served as an advisory council for the king. The rules and regulations set out by the Edict and the establishment of the Pankus proved to be very successful and lasted all the way through to the new Kingdom in the 14th century BC.[60]The Pankus established a legal code where violence was not a punishment for a crime. Crimes such as a murder and theft, which were punishable by death in other southwest Asian Kingdoms at this time, were not under the Hittite law code. Most penalties for crimes involved restitution. For example, in cases of thievery, the punishment of that crime would to be to repay what was stolen in equal value.[61]Language[edit]Part of a series onIndo-European topicsIndo-European migrations.gifLanguages[show]Philology[show]Origins[show]Archaeology[show]Peoples and societies[show]Religion and mythology[show]Indo-European studies[show]vteMain article: Hittite languageBronze tablet from Çorum-Boğazköy dating from 1235 BC. Photographed at Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara.The Hittite language is recorded fragmentarily from about the 19th century BC (in the Kültepe texts, see Ishara). It remained in use until about 1100 BC. Hittite is the best attested member of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family, and the Indo-European language for which the earliest surviving written attestation exists.The language of the Hattusa tablets was eventually deciphered by a Czech linguist, Bedřich Hrozný (1879–1952), who, on 24 November 1915, announced his results in a lecture at the Near Eastern Society of Berlin. His book about the discovery was printed in Leipzig in 1917, under the title The Language of the Hittites; Its Structure and Its Membership in the Indo-European Linguistic Family.[62] The preface of the book begins with:"The present work undertakes to establish the nature and structure of the hitherto mysterious language of the Hittites, and to decipher this language [...] It will be shown that Hittite is in the main an Indo-European language."The decipherment famously led to the confirmation of the laryngeal theory in Indo-European linguistics, which had been predicted several decades before. Due to its marked differences in its structure and phonology, some early philologists, most notably Warren Cowgill had even argued that it should be classified as a sister language to Indo-European languages (Indo-Hittite), rather than a daughter language. By the end of the Hittite Empire, the Hittite language had become a written language of administration and diplomatic correspondence. The population of most of the Hittite Empire by this time spoke Luwian dialects, another Indo-European language of the Anatolian family that had originated to the west of the Hittite region.[citation needed]According to Craig Melchert, the current tendency is to suppose that Proto-Indo-European evolved, and that the "prehistoric speakers" of Anatolian became isolated "from the rest of the PIE speech community, so as not to share in some common innovations."[63] Hittite, as well as its Anatolian cousins, split off from Proto-Indo-European at an early stage, thereby preserving archaisms that were later lost in the other Indo-European languages.[64]In Hittite there are many loanwords, particularly religious vocabulary, from the non-Indo-European Hurrian and Hattic languages. The latter was the language of the Hattians, the local inhabitants of the land of Hatti before being absorbed or displaced by the Hittites. Sacred and magical texts from Hattusa were often written in Hattic, Hurrian, and Luwian, even after Hittite became the norm for other writings.Art[edit]Monument over a spring at Eflatun PınarMain article: Hittite artGiven the size of the empire, there are relatively few remains of Hittite art. These include some impressive monumental carvings, a number of rock reliefs, as well as metalwork, in particular the Alaca Höyük bronze standards, carved ivory, and ceramics, including the Hüseyindede vases. The Sphinx Gates of Alaca Höyük and Hattusa, with the monument at the spring of Eflatun Pınar, are among the largest constructed sculptures, along with a number of large recumbent lions, of which the Lion of Babylon statue at Babylon is the largest, if it is indeed Hittite. Unfortunately, nearly all are notably worn. Rock reliefs include the Hanyeri relief, and Hemite relief. The Niğde Stele is a Neo-Hittite monument from the modern Turkish city of Niğde, which dates from the end of the 8th century BC.Religion and mythology[edit]Stag statuette, symbol of a Hittite male god in Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara. This figure is used for the Hacettepe University emblem.Main article: Hittite mythologyHittite religion and mythology were heavily influenced by their Hattic, Mesopotamian, and Hurrian counterparts. In earlier times, Indo-European elements may still be clearly discerned.Storm gods were prominent in the Hittite pantheon. Tarhunt (Hurrian's Teshub) was referred to as 'The Conqueror', 'The king of Kummiya', 'King of Heaven', 'Lord of the land of Hatti'. He was chief among the gods and his symbol is the bull. As Teshub he was depicted as a bearded man astride two mountains and bearing a club. He was the god of battle and victory, especially when the conflict involved a foreign power.[65] Teshub was also known for his conflict with the serpent Illuyanka.[66]Law[edit]Hittite laws, much like other records of the empire, are recorded on cuneiform tablets made from baked clay. What is understood to be the Hittite Law Code comes mainly from two clay tablets, each containing 186 articles, and are a collection of practiced laws from across the early Hittite Kingdom.[67] In addition to the tablets, monuments bearing Hittite cuneiform inscriptions can be found in central Anatolia describing the government and law codes of the empire.[68] The tablets and monuments date from the Old Hittite Kingdom (1650–1500 BC) to what is known as the New Hittite Kingdom (1500–1180 BC).[69] Between these time periods, different translations can be found that modernize the language[70] and create a series of legal reforms in which many crimes[69][67] are given more humane punishments. These changes could possibly be attributed to the rise of new and different kings throughout the history empire or to the new translations that change the language used in the law codes.[69] In either case, the law codes of the Hittites provide very specific fines or punishments that are to be issued for specific crimes[69][71] and have many similarities to Biblical laws found in the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy.[71] In addition to criminal punishments, the law codes also provide instruction on certain situations such as inheritance and death.Use of laws[edit]The law articles used by the Hittites most often outline very specific crimes or offenses, either against the state or against other individuals, and provide a sentence for these offenses. The laws carved in the tablets are an assembly of established social conventions from across the empire. Hittite laws at this time have a prominent lack of equality in punishments In many cases, distinct punishments or compensations for men and women are listed.[67][71] Free men most often received more compensation for offenses against them than free women did. Slaves, male or female, had very little rights, and could easily be punished or executed by their masters for crimes.[67][71] Most articles describe destruction of property and personal injury, to which the most common sentence was payment for compensation of the lost property. Again, in these cases men often times receive a greater amount of compensation than women.[67][71] Other articles describe how marriage of slaves and free individuals should be handled. In any case of separation or estrangement, the free individual, male or female, would keep all but one child that resulted from the marriage.[69][71] Another thing to note is that homosexuality is not mentioned in any of the law articles of the Hittite Empire.[67]Cases in which capital punishment is recommended in the articles most often seem to come from pre-reform sentences for severe crimes and prohibited sexual pairings. Many of these cases include public torture and execution as punishment for serious crimes against religion. Most of these sentences would begin to go away in the later stages of the Hittite Empire as major law reforms began to occur.[69][67]Law reform[edit]While different translations of laws can be seen throughout the history of the empire,[70] the Hittite outlook of law was originally founded on religion and were intended to preserve the authority of the state.[67] Additionally, punishments had the goal of crime prevention and the protection of individual property rights.[67] The goals of crime prevention can be seen in the severity of the punishments issued for certain crimes. Capital punishment and torture are specifically mentioned as punishment for more severe crimes against religion and harsh fines for the loss of private property of life. The tablets also describe the ability of the king to pardon certain crimes, but specifically prohibit an individual being pardoned for murder.[67][69]At some point in the 16th or 15th century BC, Hittite law codes move away from torture and capital punishment and to more humanitarian forms of punishments, such as fines.[67][69] Where the old law system was based on retaliation and retribution for crimes, the new system saw punishments that were much more mild, favoring monetary compensation over physical or capital punishment.[67] Why these drastic reforms happened is not exactly clear, but it is likely that punishing murder with execution was deemed not to benefit any individual or family involved.[67][69] These reforms were not just seen in the realm of capital punishment. Where major fines were to be paid, a severe reduction in penalty can be seen. For example, prior to these major reforms, the payment to be made for the theft of an animal was thirty times the animal's value; after the reforms, the penalty was reduced to half the original fine. Simultaneously, attempts to modernize the language and change the verbiage used in the law codes can be seen during this period of reform.[67][68][69][70]Examples of laws[edit]Under both the old and reformed Hittite law codes, three main types of punishment can be seen: Death, torture, or compensation/fines.[67] The articles outlined on the cuneiform tablets provide very specific punishments for crimes committed against the Hittite religion or against individuals. In many, but not all cases, articles describing similar laws are grouped together. More than a dozen consecutive articles describe what are known to be permitted and prohibited sexual pairings.[69][71] These pairings mostly describe men (sometimes specifically referred to as free men, sometimes just men in general)[71] having relations, be it consensual or not, with animals, step-family, relatives of spouses, or concubines.[67] Many of these articles do not provide specific punishments but, prior to the law reforms, crimes against religion were most often punishable by death. These include incestuous marriages and sexual relations with certain animals.[69][71] For example, one article states, "If a man has sexual relations with a cow, it is an unpermitted sexual pairing: he will be put to death."[71] Similar relations with horses and mules were not subject to capital punishment, but the offender could not become a priest afterword.[67][69] Actions at the expense of other individuals most often see the offender paying some sort of compensation, be it in the form money, animals, or land. These actions could include the destruction of farmlands, death or injury of livestock, or assault of an individual.[71] Several articles also specifically mention acts of the gods. If an animal were to die by certain circumstances, the individual could claim that it died by the hand of a god. Swearing that what they claim was true, it seems that they were exempt from paying compensation to the animal's owner.[69][71] Injuries inflicted upon animals owned by another individual are almost always compensated with either direct payment, or trading the injured animal with a healthy one owned by the offender.[71]Not all laws prescribed in the tablets deal with criminal punishment. For example, the instructions of how the marriage of slaves and division of their children are given in a group of articles, "The slave woman shall take most of the children, with the male slave taking one child."[71] Similar instructions are given to the marriage of free individuals and slaves. Other actions include how breaking of engagements are to be handled.[69][71]Biblical Hittites[edit]Main article: Biblical HittitesThe Bible refers to "Hittites" in several passages, ranging from Genesis to the post-Exilic Ezra–Nehemiah. Genesis 10 (the Generations of Noah) links them to an eponymous ancestor Heth, a descendant of Ham through his son, Canaan. The Hittites are thereby counted among the Canaanites. The Hittites are usually depicted as a people living among the Israelites—Abraham purchases the Patriarchal burial-plot of Machpelah from "Ephron HaChiti", Ephron the Hittite; and Hittites serve as high military officers in David's army. In 2 Kings 7:6, however, they are a people with their own kingdoms (the passage refers to "kings" in the plural), apparently located outside geographic Canaan, and sufficiently powerful to put a Syrian army to flight.[72]It is a matter of considerable scholarly debate whether the biblical "Hittites" signified any or all of: 1) the original Hattians; 2) their Indo-European conquerors, who retained the name "Hatti" for Central Anatolia, and are today referred to as the "Hittites" (the subject of this article); or 3) a Canaanite group who may or may not have been related to either or both of the Anatolian groups, and who also may or may not be identical with the later Syro-Hittite states.[73]Other biblical scholars (following Max Müller) have argued that, rather than being connected with Heth, son of Canaan, the Anatolian land of Hatti was instead mentioned in Old Testament literature and apocrypha as "Kittim" (Chittim), a people said to be named for a son of Javan.[74]See also[edit] Ancient Near East portalList of Hittite kingsList of artifacts significant to the BibleShort chronology timelineReferences[edit]Jump up ^ Crime and Punishment in the Ancient World - Page 29, Israel Drapkin - 1989Jump up ^ "2006-05-02 Hittite". 7 July 2004.Jump up ^ Ardzinba, Vladislav. (1974): Some Notes on the Typological Affinity Between Hattian and Northwest Caucasian (Abkhazo-Adygian) Languages. In: "Internationale Tagung der Keilschriftforscher der sozialistischen Länder", Budapest, 23.-25. April 1974. Zusammenfassung der Vorträge (Assyriologica 1), p. 10-15.Jump up ^ "Hittites". British Museum. London: Trustees of the British Museum. Retrieved 7 November 2014.Jump up ^ Ancient History Encyclopedia. "Sea Peoples." September 2009. Sea Peoples^ Jump up to: a b Erimtan, Can. (2008). Hittites, Ottomans and Turks: Ağaoğlu Ahmed Bey and the Kemalist Construction of Turkish Nationhood in Anatolia, Anatolian Studies, 58, 141–171Jump up ^ Francis William Newman 1853 A history of the Hebrew monarchy: from the administration of Samuel to the Babylonish Captivity 2nd Edition. John Chapman, London P 179 note 2Jump up ^ The Hittites: the story of a forgotten empire By Archibald Henry Sayce Queen's College, Oxford. October 1888. IntroductionJump up ^ Texier, Charles (1835). "Rapport lu, le 15 mai 1835, à l'Académie royale des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres de l'Institut, sur un envoi fait par M. Texier, et contenant les dessins de bas-reliefs découverts par lui près du village de Bogaz-Keui, dans l'Asie mineure" [Report read on 15 May 1835 to the Royal Academy of Inscriptions and Belle-lettres of the Institute, on a dispatch made by Mr. Texier and containing drawings of bas-reliefs discovered by him near the village of Bogaz-Keui [now: Boğazkale] in Asia Minor]. Journal des Savants (in French): 368–376.Jump up ^ Kloekhorst, Alwin. "Personal names from Kaniš: the oldest Indo-European linguistic material".Jump up ^ The Hittite Empire. Chapter V. Vahan KurkjianJump up ^ A Short Grammar of Hieroglyphic Luwian, John Marangozis (2003)Jump up ^ Beal, Richard H, "The History of Kizzuwatna and the Date of the Šunaššura Treaty", Orientalia 55 (1986) pp. 424ff.Jump up ^ Beal. (1986) p. 426Jump up ^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture. Taylor & Francis. pp. 4–6. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5. Retrieved 24 March 2012.Jump up ^ Puhvel, J. (1994). "Anatolian: Autochton or Interloper". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 22 (3 & 4): 251–264.^ Jump up to: a b Steiner, G. (1990). "The Immigration of the First Indo-Europeans into Anatolia Reconsidered". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 18 (1 & 2): 185–214.Jump up ^ Mallory, J. (1989). "In Search of the Indo-Europeans". New York: Thames and Hudson.Jump up ^ Renfrew, C. (1999). "Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 27 (3 & 4): 257–294.Jump up ^ Renfrew, C. (1987). "Archaeology and Language. The puzzle of Indo-European Origins". Cambridge University Press.Jump up ^ Atkinson, Q.; et al. (2014). "Mapping the Origins and Expansion of the Indo-European Language Family". Science. 337 (6097): 957–960. doi:10.1126/science.1219669. PMC 4112997. PMID 22923579Jump up ^ Anthony 2007, p. 133.Jump up ^ Anthony 2007, p. 229.Jump up ^ Anthony 2007, p. 262.Jump up ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, pp. 12–16.Jump up ^ Parpola 2015, p. 37-38.Jump up ^ Anthony 2007, p. 345, 361-367.Jump up ^ "Anatolian languages". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 1 May 2016.Jump up ^ Lehmann, Winfred P.; Slocum, Jonathan. "Hittite Online". Linguistics Research Center. University of Texas at Austin: College of Liberal Arts. Archived from the original on 12 April 2010. Retrieved 12 April 2010.Jump up ^ Archi, Alfonso (2010). "When Did the Hittites Begin to Write in Hittite?". In Cohen, Yoram; Gilan, Amir; Miller, Jared L. Pax Hethitica: Studies on the Hittites and Their Neighbours in Honour of Itamar Singer. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 37f.Jump up ^ Forlanini 2010, pp. 115–135^ Jump up to: a b Forlanini 2010, p. 121Jump up ^ ed. StBoT 18Jump up ^ Kuhrt, Amélie (1995). The Ancient Near East, Volume I. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 226–27. ISBN 0-415-16763-9.^ Jump up to: a b Forlanini 2010, p. 122^ Jump up to: a b Forlanini, 130Jump up ^ Bryce, 2005, Chs. 2 and 4; Forlanini.Jump up ^ Fortanini 2010, p. 119Jump up ^ Mark, Joshua (28 April 2011). "The Hittites". Retrieved 9 May 2017.Jump up ^ Roebuck, Carl (1966). The World of Ancient Times. New York: Charles Schibner's Sons. p. 93.Jump up ^ Gurney, O. R. (1966). The Hittites. Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin Books. p. 23.^ Jump up to: a b c d Roebuck, Carl. The World of Ancient Times. p. 94.Jump up ^ Fortanini, 115-6.Jump up ^ Gurney, O. R. The Hittites. p. 25.Jump up ^ Gurney, O. R. The Hittites. pp. 25–26.^ Jump up to: a b Roux, Georges. Ancient Iraq.Jump up ^ Windle, Joachim Latacz (2004). Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 121–122. ISBN 978-0-19-926308-0.; Bryce, Trevor (1999). The Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-19-924010-4..Beckman, Gary M.; Bryce, Trevor R.; Cline, Eric H. (2012). Writings from the Ancient World: The Ahhiyawa Texts (PDF). Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. p. 6. ISSN 1570-7008. At the very least, perhaps we can say that the Ahhiyawa Problem/Question has been solved and answered after all, for there is now little doubt that Ahhiyawa was a reference by the Hittites to some or all of the Bronze Age Mycenaean world.Jump up ^ Gurney, O. R. The Hittites. p. 110.^ Jump up to: a b c Gurney, O. R. The Hittites. p. 36.Jump up ^ "The peace treaty between Ramses II and Hattusili III". Ancient Egypt: an introduction to the history and culture. December 2006.Jump up ^ Horst Nowacki, Wolfgang Lefèvre Creating Shapes in Civil and Naval Architecture: A Cross-Disciplinary Comparison BRILL, 2009 ISBN 9004173455Jump up ^ Gurney, O. R. The Hittites. p. 39.Jump up ^ Barnett, R.D., "Phrygia and the Peoples of Anatolia in the Iron Age", The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. II, Part 2 (1975) p. 422Jump up ^ The Georgian historian Ivane Javakhishvili considered Tabal, Tubal, Jabal and Jubal to be ancient Georgian tribal designations, and argued that they spoke Kartvelian, a non-Indo-European languageJump up ^ "The Hittites". all about turkey. 5 May 2017. Retrieved 5 May 2017.Jump up ^ Bryce, Trevor (17 December 2004). Life and society in the Hittite world. Oxford University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-19-927588-5. Retrieved 8 April 2011.Jump up ^ "The Empire of the Hittites". The Old Testament Student. 4: 32–34. 1 September 1884. JSTOR 3156304.Jump up ^ Gorny, Ronald (Fall 1995). "Hittite Imperialism and Anti-Imperial Resistance As Viewed from Alișar Höyük". The Archaeology of Empire in Ancient Anatolia. 299/300: 69–70. JSTOR 1357346.Jump up ^ "The Hittites - Resources of Ancient Anatolia". pericles press. May 2017. Retrieved 5 May 2017.Jump up ^ "Telipinus Hittite king". britannica. 5 May 2017. Retrieved 5 May 2017.Jump up ^ Eduljee (5 May 2017). "Hittites". Heritage Institute. Retrieved 5 May 2017.Jump up ^ Hrozný, Bedřich, Die Sprache der Hethiter: ihr Bau und ihre Zugehörigkeit zum indogermanischen Sprachstamm: ein Entzifferungsversuch (Leipzig, Germany: J.C. Hinrichs, 1917).Jump up ^ Melchert 2012, p. 7.Jump up ^ Jasanoff 2003, p. 20 with footnote 41Jump up ^ Siren, Christopher B. "'Hittite/Hurrian Mythology REF 1.2', Myths and Legends". Comcast.net.Jump up ^ Kershaw, Stephen P. (7 February 2013). A Brief Guide to the Greek Myths. Little, Brown Book Group. ISBN 9781472107541.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Taş, İlknur; Dinler, Veysel (2015-01-01). "Hittite Criminal Law in the Light of Modern Paradigms: Searching for the traces of Modernday Criminal Law in the Past". ARAMAZD ARMENIAN JOURNAL OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES. 9: 73–90.^ Jump up to: a b Sayce, A. H. "The Hittite Inscriptions". www-jstor-org.libproxy.nau.edu. Retrieved 2018-05-01.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Roth, Martha. "Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor" (PDF). Writings from the Ancient World Society of Biblical Literature. 6: 213–246.^ Jump up to: a b c Hoffner, Harry. "The Old Hittite Version of Laws". www-jstor-org.libproxy.nau.edu. Retrieved 2018-05-01.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o David., Coogan, Michael (2013). A reader of ancient Near Eastern texts : sources for the study of the Old Testament. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195324921. OCLC 796081940.Jump up ^ King James Bible, 2 Kings 7:6: For the Lord had made the host of the Syrians to hear a noise of chariots, and a noise of horses, even the noise of a great host: and they said one to another, Lo, the king of Israel hath hired against us the kings of the Hittites, and the kings of the Egyptians, to come upon us.Jump up ^ Woudstra, Marten (1981). The Book of Joshua. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-8028-2525-4. and Trevor Bryce, The Kingdom of the Hittites, p. 389 ff.Jump up ^ "Full text of "Hittites, Mittanis & Aryans Indo Aryan Superstrate In Mitanni Internet"". archive.org. Retrieved 2018-08-14.Literature[edit]Library resources about the HittitesResources in your libraryResources in other librariesAkurgal, Ekrem (2001) The Hattian and Hittite Civilizations, Publications of the Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture, ISBN 975-17-2756-1Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, the Wheel and Language. How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University PressBryce, Trevor R. (1998). The Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford. (Also: 2005 hard and softcover editions with much new material)Bryce, Trevor R. (2002) Life and Society in the Hittite World, Oxford.Ceram, C. W. (2001) The Secret of the Hittites: The Discovery of an Ancient Empire. Phoenix Press, ISBN 1-84212-295-9.Forlanini, Massimo (2010). "An Attempt at Reconstructing the Branches of the Hittite Royal Family of the Early Kingdom Period". In Cohen, Yoram; Gilan, Amir; Miller, Jared L. Pax Hethitica: Studies on the Hittites and Their Neighbours in Honour of Itamar Singer. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.Gurney, O.R. (1952) The Hittites, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-020259-5Güterbock, Hans Gustav (1983) "Hittite Historiography: A Survey," in H. Tadmor and M. Weinfeld eds. History, Historiography and Interpretation: Studies in Biblical and Cuneiform Literatures, Magnes Press, Hebrew University pp. 21–35.Hoffner, Jr., H.A (1973) "The Hittites and Hurrians," in D. J. Wiseman Peoples of the Old Testament Times, Clarendon Press, Oxford.Jasanoff, Jay H. (2003). Hittite and the Indo-European Verb. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924905-9.Kloekhorst, Alwin (2007), Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon, ISBN 978-90-04-16092-7Macqueen, J. G. (1986) The Hittites, and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor, revised and enlarged, Ancient Peoples and Places series (ed. G. Daniel), Thames and Hudson, ISBN 0-500-02108-2.Mallory, J.P.; Adams, D.Q. (1997), Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Taylor & FrancisMelchert, H. Craig (2012). "The Position of Anatolian" (PDF).Mendenhall, George E. (1973) The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition, The Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-1654-8.Neu, Erich (1974) Der Anitta Text, (StBoT 18), Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.Orlin, Louis L. (1970) Assyrian Colonies in Cappadocia, Mouton, The Hague.Parpola, Asko (2015), The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University PressPatri, Sylvain (2007), L'alignement syntaxique dans les langues indo-européennes d'Anatolie, (StBoT 49), Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, ISBN 978-3-447-05612-0Further reading[edit]Jacques Freu et Michel Mazoyer, Des origines à la fin de l'ancien royaume hittite, Les Hittites et leur histoire Tome 1, Collection Kubaba, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2007 ;Jacques Freu et Michel Mazoyer, Les débuts du nouvel empire hittite, Les Hittites et leur histoire Tome 2, Collection Kubaba, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2007 ;Jacques Freu et Michel Mazoyer, L'apogée du nouvel empire hittite, Les Hittites et leur histoire Tome 3, Collection Kubaba, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2008.Jacques Freu et Michel Mazoyer, Le déclin et la chute de l'empire Hittite, Les Hittites et leur histoire Tome 4, Collection Kubaba, L'Harmattan, Paris 2010.Jacques Freu et Michel Mazoyer, Les royaumes Néo-Hittites, Les Hittites et leur histoire Tome 5, Collection Kubaba, L'Harmattan, Paris 2012.External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hittite Empire. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Hittites.Video lecture at Oriental Institute – Tracking the Frontiers of the Hittite EmpireHattusas/BogazköyArzawa, to the west, throws light on HittitesPictures of Boğazköy, one of a group of important sitesPictures of Yazılıkaya, one of a group of important sitesDer Anitta Text (at TITUS)Tahsin OzgucHittites.infoHittite Period in AnatoliaHethitologieportal Mainz, by the Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mainz, corpus of texts and extensive bibliographies on all things Hittitehittites area in cappadociaUşaklı Höyük u Xaystdan tashqariga qochib, daryoga etib borishidan oldin qo'lga olingan quldan ko'ra yuqoriroqdir. Asosiy hududning g'arbiy va janubiy qismida eng birinchi Xet matnlarida Luwiya deb nomlangan hudud yotadi. Ushbu atama o'rniga Arzawa va Kizzuwatna ismlari ushbu shohliklarning paydo bo'lishi bilan almashtirildi. [12] Shunga qaramay, Xet xalqlari, bu sohalarda Luwian sifatida paydo bo'lgan tilga murojaat qilishni davom ettirdi. Kilikiya shahridagi bu hududning yuragi Kizzuwatnaning paydo bo'lishidan avval Xetliklar tomonidan Adaniya deb atalgan. [13] Ammuna hukmronligi davrida Xet xalqidan bo'lgan isyondan keyin [14] Kizzuwatnaning nomini oldi va pastki Anti-Taurus tog'larini qamrab olish uchun shimolga kengaytirdi. Shimolga tog'lik odamlar kasklarni chaqirishdi.Xitlarning janubi-sharqida Mitanni hurri imperiyasi yotardi. Murshili II hukmronligi davrida Xet imperiyasi g'arbdan Arzavadan sharqqa Mitanni, shimoliy-sharqdagi Kaskiya hududlarining ko'pchiligi, shimoliy-sharqda Hayasa-Azzi, janubda esa Kan'on taxminan, Livanning janubiy chegarasi bo'lib, bu hududlarning barchasini o'z hududida qamrab olgan. [tahrir] Hind-evropa migratsiyasining xaritasi c. Miloddan avvalgi 4000 yildan 1000 yilgacha Kurgan modeliga ko'ra. Kichik Osiyo ko'chishi, ehtimol, Bolqon bo'ylab sodir bo'ldi. Magenta maydoni taxminan Urmixata (Samara madaniyati, Sredny Stog madaniyati) ga mos keladi. Qora to'q sariq rangli hudud hind-evropa tilida gapiradigan xalqlar tomonidan joylashtirilgan hududga to'g'ri keladi. Miloddan avvalgi 2500 yillar va engil apelsin maydoni miloddan avvalgi 1000 yilga to'g'ri keladi. Originlar [tahrir] Odatda Xetliklar eramizgacha 2000 yilgacha Anatoliya hududiga kirgan deb taxmin qilinadi.Avvalgi joylashuvi shubha ostiga olingan, bir asrdan ko'proq vaqt mobaynida olimlar tomonidan Pontifik-Kaspiy cho'lining Yamna madaniyati, bugungi kunda Ukraina, Azov dengizi atrofida uchinchi davrda Hind-evropa tillari haqida so'zlaganligi haqida spekulerlar tomonidan berilgan. va miloddan avvalgi to'rtinchi ming yillar. [15] Xetliklar Anatoliyada bronza davrida kelishi tabiiy madaniyatga (bu holatda mavjud bo'lgan Xattaliklar va Hurriylarga nisbatan), yoki fath yoki bosqichma-bosqich assimilyatsiya. [16] [17]Arxeologiya nuqtai nazaridan, Xetliklar Bolqonning Ezero madaniyatiga va Kavkazdagi Maykop madaniyatiga aloqador bo'lib, immigratsiya sharoitida muhokama qilingan [18].Hind-evropa elementi, eng kamida, Xet madaniyatini Anatoliyga zo'ravonlik sifatida zo'ravonlik sifatida belgilaydi (Anatoliya gipotezasi Hind-Yevropaning Kichik Osiyoning tub aholisiga xosligini nazarda tutgan Kolin Renfry, [19] [20] ning fikrlaridan tashqari, va yaqinda Quentin Atkinson [21]. [17] Entoni ma'lumotiga ko'ra, cho'l cho'ponlari, antik proto-indo-evropalik ma'ruzachilar, Quyi Duna vodiysiga miloddan avvalgi 4200-4000 yillarda tarqalib ketishgan yoki eski Yevropaning qulashidan foydalanishgan. ] Ularning tillari, ehtimol, "Anatoliya" da qisman saqlanib qolgan qisman himoya qilingan proto-indo-evropa tilidagi dialektlardir ". [23] Ularning avlodlari keyinchalik Anatoliyada noma'lum vaqtga ko'chib o'tgan, ammo mil. J. P. Malloryga ko'ra, miloddan avvalgi 3 ming yillikda Anatoliylarning shimoldan Yaqin Sharqqa yoki Bolqon va Kavkaz orqali erishishlari mumkin. [25] Parpola so'zlariga ko'ra, Evropadan Hind-evropacha spikerlarning paydo bo'lishi va Xetning ko'rinishi Yamna madaniyatidan Proto-Indo-evropalik ma'ruzachilarning keyinchalik Tuna vodiysiga ko'chishi bilan bog'liq. Miloddan avvalgi 2800 yil, [26] [27], bu Anatoliya Indo-Evropa tilining miloddan avvalgi uchinchi ming yillikda Anatoliya hududiga kiritilgan "odatiy" taxminiga mos keladi. [28] Mintaqadagi ularning harakatlari Yaqin Sharqdagi ommaviy migratsiya davrida miloddan avvalgi 1900-yillarda O'rta Osiyo hududida istiqomat qiluvchi mahalliy aholi no-Hind-evropa tillari haqida gapirgan hurri va hattilar edi. Ba'zilar, Hattic shimoliy-g'arbiy Kavkaz tilidir, ammo uning sherikliklari noaniq bo'lib qolmoqda, Hurrio tili yaqindan izolyatsiya qilingan (ya'ni u Hurro-urartiyalik oilada faqat ikki yoki uchta tillardan biri bo'lgan). Shuningdek, Ossuriya koloniyalari ham sobiq Ossuriya imperiyasi davrida (mil. Avv. 2025-1750); Yuqori Mesopotamiyadagi Ossuriya so'zlovchilaridan Xetliklar mixxat yozuvi qabul qilinganligini tasdiqlashdi. Xetliklar eramizdan avval XVIII asr o'rtalarida eski Ossuriya imperiyasi inqirozi ostida o'zlarini qurishganidan biroz vaqt talab etilgandi, chunki bu erda keltirilgan ayrim matnlardan aniq.Bir necha asrlar mobaynida turli xil shaharlarda joylashgan alohida xet guruhlari mavjud edi. Keyinchalik Xattusada (zamonaviy Boğazkale) markazida kuchli hokimlar Xet podsholigini barpo etish uchun Markaziy Anatoliyaning katta qismlarini to'plash va muvaffaqiyatga erishishga muvaffaq bo'ldi. [29] Erta davr [tahrir] Xet arabasi, Misr yengilligidan. Xet podshohligi t orqali ma'lum miloddan avvalgi XVII asrda, ehtimol Xetda yozilishi mumkin edi [30], ammo miloddan avvalgi 14 va 13-asrlarda Akkad nusxalari sifatida faqat tirik qolgan. Ular qirol oilasining ikkala filialida O'rta Shohlikgacha raqobatni ochib beradi; Zalpuwa va ikkinchisi Hattusa va Kussariyada joylashgan (hali ham topilmadi) janubiy bo'linmasi va Kaneshning sobiq Assur koloniyasi bo'lgan shimoliy filial. Bu ularning nomlari bilan ajralib turadi; Shimoliy afsonaviylar Xat tili nomlarini saqlab qolishdi, janubiy yunon xalqlari esa Xet va Xufti nomlarini qabul qildilar. [31] Zalpuwa miloddan avval 1833-yilda Uhnaga Kaneshga hujum qildi. [32] Anitta matni sifatida ma'lum bo'lgan bir nechta planshet. ] Kussara qiroli Pithana qanday qo'shni Neša (Kanesh) ni qanday bosib olganini aytib berishdan boshlaydi. [34] Biroq, bu planshetlarning asosiy mavzusi - Pithana'nın o'g'li Anitta (mil. Avv. 1745-1720), [35] otasi qoldirgan va bir qancha shimoliy shaharlar: jumladan, Xattusani la'natlagan va Zalpuwa'yı bosib olgan. Bu shohlik oilasining janubiy qismiga, Hattusa poytaxti sifatida o'rnatgan shimoliy filialga qarshi propagandadir. [36] Zalpuwa haqidagi hikoya Zalpuwa-ni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi va keyinchalik Kaneshni ishdan bo'shatish uchun Zalpuwani qo'llab-quvvatlaydi. [36] Anitta Zuzzu (mil. Avv. 1720-1710) ni egallagan edi [35], ammo milodiy 1710-1705 yillarda , Kanesh vayron qilindi, u uzoq vaqtdan beri Assuriya savdogar savdosiga oid savdo tizimini olib, [32] Zafuvan / Xattusan oilasiga qarshi kurashish uchun Kussaron oilasi omon qolgandi, ammo bu Anitta to'g'ridan-to'g'ri chizig'i bo'ladimi-yo'qmi-yo'qmi. [37] Shu orada Zalpa lordlari yashadi. Zalpaning Xuzziyadan avlodi Xusiya I Xatti ustidan g'alaba qozondi. Xurma (hozirgi Kalburabastı) ning janubidan keladigan uning kelini Labarna I taxtni zabt etdi, ammo Huzsiyaning nabirasi bo'lgan ṭattuilni nabirasi sifatida o'z o'g'li va merosxo'ri sifatida qabul qildi. [Tahrir] Xattusha rampasi Xet podshohligining asoslanishi yoki Labarna I yoki Hattusili I (Labarna'yı shaxsiy ism sifatida ham mumkin edi) [38], Hattuşanın janub va shimolidagi hududni fath qilgan. Hattusili, men Suriyadagi Yamxodning Semitik Amor podshohligi tomon harakat qildim, u erda Halabning poytaxti bo'lgan, lekin u qo'lga tushmadi. Hattuşili oxirida Hattuşani qo'lga kiritdim va Xet imperiyasining asosi uchun keldim. Miloddan avvalgi X asrga oid Telepinu farmoniga ko'ra, "Xattusili qirol edi va uning o'g'illari, birodarlari, qaynotalari, oila a'zolari va qo'shinlari birlashdilar ... Qaerga bormasin, u dushman erlarini nazorat qildi U yerlarni bir-biridan keyin yo'q qilib tashladi, kuchlarini tortib oldi va ularni dengiz chegarasi qilib qo'ydi, lekin kampaniyadan qaytib kelganlarida, har bir o'g'illari bir mamlakatga, buyuk shaharlar gullab-yashnagan bo'lsa-da, keyinchalik knyazlarning xizmatkorlari poraxo'rlik qila boshladilar, mulklarini yuta boshladilar, xo'jayinlariga qarshi doimiy ravishda qasd qildilar va qonlarini to'kardilar ». Bu farmondan farmon birlashishni, Xet xalqining farovonligi, uning o'g'illari deb hisoblanadigan "knyazlar" ning korruptsiyasini tasvirlaydi, korruptsiya bilan shug'ullanadi, ammo manbalarning etishmasligi korruptsiya bilan qanday kurashayotgani haqida noaniqlikka olib keladi. Hattusilida men bo'laman o'lim to'shagida, uning nabirasi Mursuliyni o'z merosxo'ri sifatida tanladi. [39] Mursiy I mil. avv. 1595 yilda Amoritlarga qarshi o'tkazilgan kampaniyada (o'rta xronologiya) g'olib chiqdi. Miloddan avvalgi 1595 yilda Mursiy I (yoki Murshilish I) Furot daryosidan pastga tushib, Ossuriya atrofini aylanib, Mari va Bobilni bosib olib, Bobil davlatining Amorlik asoschilarini chiqarib tashlagan. Biroq, Xet kampaniyasi, Xitit uylariga askarlar olib chiqishni majbur qilgan ichki kelishmovchilikka olib keldi. Miloddan oldingi XVI asrning qolgan qismida Xet podshohlari sharqqa qo'shnilari bo'lgan Hurrilar bilan urush urushlari va urushlar orqali o'z yurtlariga joylashtirilgan. Bundan tashqari, Amurru (zamonaviy Suriya) va janubiy Mesopotamiyaga olib borilgan kampaniya, Xit yozuvlari avvalgi Assyrian mustamlakasi davridagi yozuvlardan juda farq qiladi. Mursili Hattusili I. Mursilining Fathlar janubiy Mesopotamiyaga etib bordi va mil. avv. 1531 yilda Bobilning o'zi ham (qisqacha xronologiya) tarqaldi. Bobilni Xet mazhabiga qo'shmasdan, Mursiy o'zining o'rniga Bobilni o'zining keyingi to'rt asrga boshqaradigan Kassit ittifoqchilariga topshirdi. Biroq, bu uzoq davom etadigan kampaniya Hatti resurslarini zaiflashtirdi va poytaxtni yaqin anarxiya holatida qoldirdi. Mursiy qaytganidan ko'p o'tmay o'ldirildi va Xet podshohligi betartiblikka aylandi. Hurriyliklar (Hind-Aryan Mitanni hukmronlik klassi nazorati ostida), tog'li hududdagi yuqori tigri hozirgi Janubiy - Sharqiy Turkiyadagi Furot daryolari Halep va uning atrofini o'zlari uchun, shuningdek, Adaniya qirg'oqlari mintaqasini Kizzuwatna (keyinchalik Kilikiya) deb atash uchun vaziyatdan foydalanganlar .Shundan so'ng Xetliklar zaiflashgan noaniq yozuvlar bosqichi, ahamiyatsiz hukmdorlar va nazorat sohasining kamayishi. Kuchli podshohlar ostida kengayishning bu turi zaif bo'lganlar ostida qisqarish, Xet podshohining 500 yillik tarixi davomida qayta-qayta takrorlanishi kerak edi. Qadimgi Xet podshohligining bu yillaridagi siyosiy beqarorlik qisman Xet podshohligining tabiati tomonidan tushuntirilishi mumkin. Miloddan avvalgi 1400 yilgacha bo'lgan Xet podshohlik davri mobaynida, Xet xalqining shohi Xet xalqi tomonidan Misr fir'averi singari "tirik xudo" deb qarashmagan, balki tengdoshlar orasida birinchi bo'lgan. [42] Faqat Xet imperiyasining keyingi davrida, mil. Avv. 1400 yildan mil. Avv. 1200gacha, Xet xalqining shohligi yanada markazlashtirilgan va kuchli bo'lib qoldi. Bundan oldingi yillarda ham "meros" urushi shimoliy va janubiy shoxlari orasidagi raqobatning "gullar urushi" ga ruxsat berilmagan edi.Mursiydan keyingi har qanday yozuvning keyingi monarxi Telepinu (mil. Avv. 1500 yil), bir nechta g'alaba qozongan janubiy-g'arbiy qismida, ehtimol, bir Hurrian davlati (Kizzuwatna) bilan boshqasiga qarshi (Mitanni) qarshi bo'ysundirishda. Telepinu shuningdek, ketma-ketlikni saqlab qolishga harakat qildi. [43] O'rta er dengizi qirg'og'i [tahrir] Yaqin Sharqdagi o'n ikki xet xudolari yaqin atrofdagi Yazılıkaya'da, Hattusa'nın muqaddas maydonidir. Eski shohlikning oxirgi monarxi Telepinu miloddan avvalgi 1500 yilgacha hukmronlik qildi. Telepinu hukmronligi "Eski Shohlik" ning oxirigacha va "O'rta Shohlik" deb nomlangan uzoq davom etadigan zaif fazaning boshlanishi edi [44]. Miloddan avvalgi 15 asrga oid davr kamdan-kam uchraydi. [45] Zaiflik va zaiflik sabablarining bir qismi Xet xalqining Qora dengiz qirg'oqlari bo'ylab joylashgan hind-evropalik bo'lmagan Kaskadan qattiq hujumga uchraganligidir. Poytaxt yana bir bor Sapinuwa'ya, so'ng Samuha'ya ketdi. Sapinuwa'da bir arxiv bor, ammo hozirgi kunga qadar tegishli tarjima qilinmagan. Bu "Hitit imperiyasi davriga" to'g'ri keladi, bu c. Tudhaliya I hukmronligidan kelib chiqadi. Miloddan avvalgi 1430-yillar. Xet hokimiyatining bu erdagi rahbarlari hisobiga qo'shilishi mumkin bo'lgan bir yangilik - qo'shni davlatlar bilan tuzilgan shartnoma va ittifoqlarni amalga oshirish amaliyoti; Xet xalqlari xalqaro siyosat va diplomatiya sohasidagi eng mashhur taniqli kashshoflar orasida bo'lganlar. Hitit dinida hurriylarning bir qancha xudolari va marosimlari qabul qilingan. Yangi qirollik [tahrir] Tudhaliya IV (Xattushadagi relizi) Xet yodgorligi, Anatoliya madaniyatlari muzeyida Anqara shahrida joylashgan Fasıllar haykalining aniq nusxasi. Tudhaliya I (aslida bu ismning birinchi ismi bo'lmagan, shuningdek, Tudhaliya ham qarang), Xet podshohligi g'aflat zulmatidan chiqdi. Xet tsivilizatsiyasi "Xet imperiyasi davri" deb nomlangan davrga kirdi. Bu davr mobaynida juda ko'p o'zgarishlar yuz berdi, lekin ularning hech biri shohlikni kuchaytirmasdi. Xet xalqining joylashishi imperiya davrida rivojlangan. [42] Biroq, Xet xalqi, Egey yurtlarini emas, balki, Janubiy Anatoliyaning eski mamlakatlariga joylashishni istashadi. Ushbu turar-joy rivojlangani uchun qo'shni xalqlar bilan shartnoma imzolandi [42]. Xet imperiyasi davrida podshoh merosga aylandi va shoh "dahshatli aura" ni oldi va Xet xalqi tomonidan "Mening quyoshim" deb nomlana boshladi. Imperiya davrining shohlari butun shohlik uchun oliy ruhoniy bo'lib xizmat qila boshladilar - Xet muqaddas shaharlaridan har yili bir marosim o'tkazib, bayramlarni o'tkazib, muqaddas ma'badlarni ta'mirlashni nazorat qildilar. [42] Miloddan avvalgi 1400- Yana Kizzuwatna bilan ittifoq tuzgan shoh Tudhaliya I Halab va Mitanni shtatlarini mag'lub qildi va Arzawa (Luwian davlati) hisobidan g'arbga kengayib ketdi .Boshqa bir zaif bosqich Tudhaliya I va Xetning dushmanlari barcha yo'nalishlardan Hatto Hattushaga ham borib, uni buzishdi. Biroq, Shalol avvalgi Xolibni qo'lga kiritgan, miloddan avvalgi 1350-yillardagi "Suppiluliuma I" (sobiq miloddan avvalgi 1350 yillar) da qayta tiklandi, Mitanni esa o'zining qaynatasi ostida Ossuriyaliklar tomonidan vassalajaga tushdi va boshqa Amorit shaharlaridagi Karkemisni mag'lub etdi. O'zining o'g'illari bu yangi fathlarning ustidan g'alaba qozondi, Bobil hali ham ittifoqchilar Kassitlarning qo'lida edi, bu ma'lum Dunyoning eng buyuk kuch vositachisi Suppluliuma, Ossuriya va Misr bilan birga edi va Misr uzoq vaqtdan beri ittifoq tuzishga intilgan Tutankamenning bevasi bilan o'g'illaridan birining uylanishi. Afsuski, bu o'g'lining, o'z maqsadiga yetib borishidan oldin, qotilligi aniqlangan va bu ittifoq hech qachon tugamagan. Biroq, O'rta asriy imperiyasi (mil. Avv. 1365-1050) yana bir bor gro boshladi miloddan avvalgi 1365-yilda Ashur-ubolit I ning ko'tarilishi bilan ham kuchga ega. Ashur-ubolit Men Xet podshohi Shaliluliumning urushiga qaramay, Assuriya kuchining o'sib borayotganidan qo'rqib, taxtini harbiy yordam bilan himoya qilishga urinishlariga qaramasdan, Mitanni podshohi Mattiwazaga hujum qilib, uni mag'lub qildim. Mitanni va Hurriylarning erlari, Ossuriya tomonidan, sharqiy Kichik Osiyodagi Xet hududiga tajovuz qilish uchun imkon berildi va Adad-nirari I Karxemishni va shimoli-sharqiy Suriyani Xet xalqidan nazorat qildilar. [46] Suppiluliumdan so'ng, eng katta o'g'li, ikkinchi o'g'li Mursiy II qisqa hukmronlik qildi (II. 1330). Sharqda kuchli bir mavqega ega bo'lib, Mursiy g'arbga e'tiborini tortdi, u erda Arzawa va Ahhiyawa nazorati ostida bo'lgan Millauanda (Milet) deb nomlangan shaharga hujum qildi. Xet matnlarining yangi o'qishlari va talqinlari hamda Anatoliya materiyasining Myenena bilan aloqalari uchun moddiy dalillarga asoslangan so'nggi tadqiqotlar Ahhiyawa Myken Yunonistonga yoki hech bo'lmaganda uning bir qismiga tegishli degan xulosaga keldi. [Tahrir] Qadash urushi [tahrir] Misr fir'avni Ramesses II Dapurning Xet qal'asiga hujum qilmoqda. Asosiy maqola: Kadesh-Xet xalqining farovonligi ko'p jihatdan savdo yo'llari va metall manbalarini boshqarishga bog'liq edi. Shimoliy Suriyaning Kilikiya darvozalarini Mesopotamiya bilan bog'laydigan muhim yo'nalishlardan kelib chiqqan holda, bu hududni mudofaa qilish juda muhim edi va tez orada fir'avn Ramesses II davrida misrliklarning kengayishi bilan sinovdan o'tkazildi. Jangning natijasi noaniq, ammo Misr kuchlari o'z vaqtida kelishi Xet g'alabasini to'sib qo'ygan ko'rinadi [48]. Misrliklar Xet xalqini Kadesh qal'asiga boshpana berishga majbur qilishdi, lekin ularning yo'qotishlari ularni qamal qilishni to'xtatdi. Bu urush Ramessesning 5-yilida (mil. Av. 1274 yilda eng keng tarqalgan qo'llanilgan xronologiyadir) sodir bo'ldi .Shohlikning halokati va halokati [tahrir] Xattusili III va Ramses II o'rtasida Misr-Xet sulh bitimi (mil. Av. 1258). Istanbul Arxeologiya muzeyi inson boshi va sher boshi bilan Chimera; Anatoliya madaniyati muzeyida kech Xet davri, Anqara Ushbu tarixdan so'ng, Xet va Misrliklarning kuchi yana Ossuriya kuchlari tufayli yana pasayib ketdi. [49] Ossuriya shohi Shalmaneser men Hurriyani va Mitanni'yni yo'qotish, o'z yurtlarini egallash va Anatoliyadagi Furot boshini, Quddus Eron, Oram (Suriya), Kan'on (Isroil) va Finikiya qabilalarini kengaytirish imkoniyatini qo'lga kiritdi. Muvatalli Misrliklar bilan mashg'ul bo'lgan. Xetliklar Mitanni podsholigini harbiy yordam bilan himoya qilishga urinishgan [46]. Ossuriya endi Misrda bo'lganidek, Xet tijorat yo'llariga xavf solmoqda. Muvatiylining o'g'li Urhi-Teshub taxtni egalladi va qisqa muddatli fuqarolik urushidan keyin amakisi Hattusiliy III tomonidan otib o'ldirilgunga qadar 7 yil Mursiy III kabi taxtga o'tirdi. Xet hududining Ossuriya qo'shinini ortib borishiga javoban u Ramses II bilan (Ashuriyadan qo'rqqan) tinchlik va ittifoq tuzdi va qizining qo'lini Fir'avnga nikoh to'laydi. [49] Tarixdagi eng qadimgi shartnomalaridan biri bo'lgan "Qadesh bitimi" janubiy Kan'onda o'z chegaralarini o'rnatgan va Ramesesning 21-yili (mil. Av. 1258) imzolangan. Ushbu bitim shartlari Xet pahlavonlaridan birining fir'avn Ramesesga nikohlanishini o'z ichiga olgan. [49] [50] Hattusilining o'g'li Tudhaliya IV Hititning eng kuchli xetlik shohi bo'lib, Ossuriyaliklarni Xet yuragi bilan bog'lashi mumkin edi. Ularning ko'pchiligi ularni yo'qotib qo'ygan bo'lsa-da, Nihriya jangida Ossuriyalik Tukulti-Ninurta I g'olib bo'ldi. Hatto, Ossuriyaga tushishidan avval, Kiprning yunon oroliga vaqtinchalik qo'shilgan. Eng oxirgi shoh, Suppiluliuma II, ba'zi g'alabalarni, jumladan, Kipr sohilidagi Alashiya qarshi dengiz jangini ham qo'lga kiritdi. [51] Biroq Ashur-resh-ishi ostida bo'lgan Ossuriyaliklar shu paytgacha Kichik Osiyoda va Suriyada Xet hududini egallab olgan edilar. Bu erda Xet xalqining ko'zlari bor bo'lgan Bobil shohi Navuxadnazar Ini mag'lub etdi. Dengiz xalqlari allaqachon Egeydan boshlab, O'rta er dengizi qirg'oqlaridan pastga tushib, Filistlar davlatini qurib, Kilikiya va Kiprni Xet yo'llaridan uzoqlashtirib, ularning savdo yo'llarini kesib tashlagan. Bu Xet erining barcha yo'nalishlarga hujum qilish uchun himoyalanmagan va Hattusa miloddan avvalgi 1180 yillarda yangi bosqinchilar, Kaskas, Frigiya va Bryjez to'lqinlarining birlashgan hujumidan so'ng erga yoqilgandi. Shunday qilib, Xet podshohligi tarixiy yozuvlardan voz kechib, Ossuriya hududining ko'p qismini egallab olgan. Shohligining oxiri Buyuk Bronza davri yiqilishining bir qismi edi. Surro-Xet podshohligi [tahrir] Halep muzeyidagi "Tarhunzas" bo'ron xudosi. Maqola: Syro-Xet. Mil. Av. 1160 y. Kichik Osiyodagi yo'qotish faqat 25 yil avvalgidan ancha farq qilar edi. O'sha yili Ossuriya shohi Tiglatx-Pileser janubiy Anatoliya janubidagi Ossuriya koloniyalariga bosim o'tkazishga urinayotgan Mushku (Frigiyaliklar) ni mag'lub etib, shimoliy tepalikdagi Xet xalqining dushmanlari, Xatti va Qora dengiz o'rtasidagi mamlakat, keyinchalik ularga qo'shilgan ko'rinadi. Frigliklar, ehtimol, Kappadokiya ni g'arbdan bosib olgan edilar. So'nggi paytlarda Makedoniyaliklar tomonidan majburan olib chiqilgan Bolqon "Brygyz" qabilasi sifatida paydo bo'lganligini tasdiqlovchi epigrafik dalillarga ega bo'lganlar. Xet podshohligi Anatoliyadan bu erda yo'qolgan bo'lsa-da, Anatoliya va Suriyaning shimoliy qismidagi Neo-Xet podshohlari deb nomlangan. Ular Xet podshohining vorislari edi. Eng mashhur Suriya neo-xet podshohlari Karxemysh va Milid (keyingi Melitene yaqinida) bo'lganlar edi. Neo-Xet podshohligi asta-sekin Neo-Assuriya imperiyasining nazorati ostiga tushdi (mil. Av. 911-608). Karkxman va Milid Shalmaneser III (mil. 858-823 yillar) da Ossuriya vassallariga ega bo'lib, Sargon II davrida (miloddan avvalgi 722-705) Ossuriyaga to'liq qo'shildi. Tabal deb nomlanadigan yirik va qudratli davlat janubiy Anatoliyaning ko'p qismini egalladi. Gk deb nomlanuvchi. Tibareno Tibarenoy, Lat. Tibareni, Iosifus tilidagi Thobeles, ularning tili Luwian bo'lishi mumkin, [53] Luwian hiyerogliflari yordamida yozilgan yodgorliklardan dalolat beradi [54]. Bu davlat ham fath qilindi va Assuriya imperiyasida keng tarqaldi. Xullas, ikkala Luwian hiyeroglifi va monografiyasi ham Anatoliyaga bir vaqtning o'zida Egeydan kirgan (Bryges ismli ism bilan o'zgartirilgan) bir yangilik, alfavit tomonidan eskirgan edi. Frigiyaliklar) va fenikistlar va Suriyadagi qo'shni xalqlar. Hukumat [tahrir] Xet davlatining boshlig'i shoh bo'lib, keyinchalik merosxo'r bo'lgan. Podshoh mamlakatning eng oliy hokimi bo'lib, harbiy qo'mondon, sud hokimiyati va oliy ruhoniy bo'lgan. Biroq, ba'zi bir mansabdor shaxslar hukumatning turli sohalariga nisbatan mustaqil hokimiyatni amalga oshirdi. Xet xalqida bu lavozimlarning eng muhimlaridan biri Gal Mesedi (Qirol himoyachilari boshligi). [56] Bu Gal Mesediyadek, odatda shoh oilasining a'zosi bo'lgan Gal Gestin (Wine Stewards boshlig'i) unvoni bilan almashtirildi. Qirollikning byurokratikasini Gal-Dubsar (qirolning boshlig'i) boshqarardi, uning vakolatlari qirolning shaxsiy kotibi Lugal Dubsarga tegishli emas edi. Misr yozuvlari Misr monarxlari Misr podshohlari bilan ikki Keteshda (Orontes daryosida joylashgan Xet shaharchasida) va Karkxemshda (Janubiy Anatoliyada joylashgan Furot daryosida joylashgan) bosh seanslar mavjud. [57] Erta Xet hukumatida Xitit kengayishi va poytaxt HattusaReligionning joylashuvini tasvirlaydigan xaritadir. nazorat qilish [tahrir] Xatit prefet Kattaha uyi va boshqa Hattic xudolariga sajda qilish uchun Anquvaning Markaziy Anatoliya aholi punktida Xetliklar nazorat qilishni istagan joylarda etnik farqlar ko'rsatilgan. Kattaha dastlab Hannikkun ismini oldi. Ronald Gorny (Turkiyadagi Alisar mintaqaviy loyihasi rahbari) so'zlariga ko'ra, Kattahani "Hannikkun" dan foydalanish bu ayol xudoning oldingi xetlik kimligini pasaytirish va uni Xet urf-odati bilan bog'lash uchun qurilma edi . Kattaha bilan xuddi eski tarixlarida xudolarni qayta tuzish ularning vakolatini qonuniylashtirish va yangi kelgan hududlar va aholi punktlarida ziddiyatli mafkuradan qochishning bir usuli edi. Mahalliy xudolarni o'z urf-odatlariga moslashtirib, Xet xalqlari an'anaviy e'tiqodlari Xet siyosiy va iqtisodiy maqsadlariga moslashishi uchun o'zgarishlarni tushunish va qabul qilishiga umid qilishgan [58]. Eski qirollikdagi siyosiy qarama-qarshilik [tahrir] Miloddan avvalgi 1595 yilda shoh Marsilis I (mil. Av. 1556-1526) Bobil shahriga kirib, shaharni ishdan bo'shatdi. Uyda qo'zg'olondan qo'rqib, u uzoq vaqt qolmadi va tezda Hattusaning poytaxtiga qaytdi. Xattusga qaytganida u qaynonasi Xantili I tomonidan o'ldirilgan, keyin taxtni egallagan. Xantili o'zi ustidan ko'plab qotillik urinishlaridan qochib qutulgan bo'lsa-da, uning oilasi yo'q edi. Uning xotini, Harapsili va uning o'g'li o'ldirilgan. Bundan tashqari, qirol oilasining boshqa a'zolari o'z o'g'li Ammunna tomonidan o'ldirilgan Zindata I tomonidan o'ldirilgan. Xet shohlik oilasi ichidagi ichki tartibsizliklarning barchasi hokimiyatning pasayishiga olib keldi. Bu hattoki Hurritiylar kabi atrofdagi qirolliklarga, Xet kuchlariga qarshi muvaffaqiyatga erishish va Kichik Osiyo mintaqasida hokimiyat markaziga aylandi. [59] Pankus [tahrir] Qirol Telipinus (mil. Avv. 1525 - mil. Xet xalqining so'nggi shohi hisoblanadi. U hukmdorlik hokimiyatini boshqarishda hokimiyatni qo'lga kiritdi. Uning hukmronligi davrida u g'amxo'rlik qilishni xohladi qonunsizlik va qirollik merosini tartibga soladi. Keyin u Telipinus farmonini chiqardi. Ushbu farmon doirasida Oliy sud sifatida faoliyat yuritadigan "umumiy kengash" bo'lgan pankusni tayinladi. Qotillik kabi jinoyatlar Pankus tomonidan ko'rib chiqildi va baholandi. Shohlar Pankus ostida yurish huquqiga ham ega edi. Pankus shohga maslahat kengashi ham xizmat qildi. Xukmda qayd etilgan qoidalar va Pankusning tuzilishi juda muvaffaqiyatli va miloddan avvalgi 14 asrda yangi qirollikka qadar davom etgan [60]. Pankus zo'ravonlik bo'lmagan jinoyat uchun jazo. Boshqa qirg'oq-Osiyo qirolliklarida o'lim bilan jazolangan qotillik va o'g'irlik kabi jinoyatlar, Xet qonunchiligining ostida emas edi. Jinoyatlar uchun eng ko'p jazo choralari qayta ko'rib chiqiladi. Misol uchun, o'g'irlik holatlarida bu jinoyatning jazosi teng qiymatda o'g'irlangan narsalarni qaytarib berishdir. [61] Til [tahrir] Ido-evropa mavzularidagi bir qator qism InDa-evropa migratsiyasi.gif Tillar [ko'rsatish] Filologiya [ [tahrir] "Xalqlar va jamiyatlar" [ko'rsat] Din va mifologiya [ko'rsatish] Hind-evropa tadqiqotlari [ko'rsatish] vteMain maqola: Xit tillari. Chorum-Boğazko'dan miloddan avvalgi 1235-yilga kelib. Kichik Osiyo madaniyatlari muzeyida suratga olingan Anqara. Xet tilining miloddan avvalgi XIX asrdan qisman yozib olinishi (Kültepe matnlarida, Isharaga qarang). Taxminan mil. Avv. 1100 yilgacha ishlatilgan. Xet-Indo-Evropa tilidagi oilaning Anatoliya filialining eng yaxshi attestatsiyadan o'tgan a'zosi va eng qadimgi yozma attestatsiya mavjud bo'lgan Indo-Evropa tili. Hattusa planshetlarining tili oxirida Chexiya tilshunosi Bedrich Hrozny ( 1879-1952), Berlining Yaqin Sharq Jamiyatida (1915 yil 24 noyabr) o'z ma'ruzasida o'z natijalarini e'lon qildi. Uning kashfiyoti haqidagi kitob 1917 yilda Leyptsigda "Xet xalqining tili" sarlavhasi ostida bosilgan; Uning xarakterli tarkibi va hind-Evropa lingvistik oilasida a'zolik. [62] Kitobning boshlanishi: "Hozirgi ish Xet xalqining hozirgi sirli tilining tabiatini va tuzilishini o'rnatishga va bu tilni o'rganishga majbur bo'ladi [...] Xet xalqi asosiy Hindistonda "Evropalik til" deb ataladi. Deklaratsiyani bir necha o'n yillar ilgari bashorat qilingan Hind-evropa tilshunosligidagi laringeal nazariyaning tasdiqlanishiga olib keldi. Uning strukturasida va fonologiyadagi sezilarli farqliliklari tufayli ba'zi erta filologlar, xususan, Warren Cowgill qizi tili emas, Hind-evropa tillari (Indo-Xet) uchun ona tili sifatida tasniflanishi kerakligini ta'kidlagan. Hitit imperiyasining oxiriga kelib, Xet tilida ma'muriy va diplomatik yozishmalar tili yozilgan. Xet imperiyasining aksariyat aholisi hozirgi vaqtda Xet hududining g'arbiy qismida paydo bo'lgan Anatoliya oilasining yana bir hind-Evropa tilida Luwian dialektlari haqida so'z yuritdilar. Kreyg Melchertning aytishicha, hozirgi tendentsiya Proto-Indo-evropik rivojlangani va Anatoliyning "prehistorik spikerlari" "PIE nutqi jamoatchiligining qolgan qismidan ajralib turishdi, shuning uchun ba'zi umumiy innovatsiyalarga qo'shilmaslik kerak" [63]. Xet va uning Kichik Osiyo Xo'ppiz tilida boshqa xitoy-yunon tillarida yo'qolib ketgan archaizmlarni saqlab qolishdi. [64] Xet davrida, Indoneziyadan tashqari Hindistondan kelgan ko'p tilli so'zlar, xususan, diniy so'zlar mavjud. Evropa Hurrian va Hattic tillari. Bu xattotlar tomonidan so'rib olinishidan avval Xattaliklar, Xatti erining mahalliy aholisi til edi. Hattushadagi muqaddas va sehrli matnlar Hatti, Xurri va Luvian tillarida yozilgan. Hatto boshqa matnlar uchun norma bo'lganidan keyin ham. [Tahrir] Eflatun PınarMain maqolasida bahor ustida yodgorlik: Xet san'ati Imperiyaning o'lchamiga qarab, Xet san'atining nisbatan oz miqdordagi qoldiqlari. Bunga ba'zi hayratlanarli monumental oymalar, bir qator toshbo'ron qilichlar, shuningdek, metall ishlov berish, jumladan, Alaca Höyük bronza standartlari, fil suyagi va keramikalar, shu jumladan Hüseyindede vazalar kiradi. Eflatun Pınar'ın bahoridagi yodgorlik bilan Alaca Höyük va Hattuşa'nın Sfenks darvozalari, Bobilda Arslan Bobil haykali eng katta bo'lgan, eng katta qurilgan sherlar bilan bir qatorda, Albatta, Xet. Afsuski, ularning deyarli hammasi eskirgan. Qoyatosh bo'yinbog'lari orasida Hanyeri relizi va Gamit tozaligi mavjud. Niğde Steli, zamonaviy turk shahar Niğde'den kelgan miloddan avvalgi 8-asrning oxiridan boshlab, Neo-Xet yodgorligi. Ritual va mifologik [tahrir] Anatoliya madaniyat muzeyida Xet xudosi xudosi, Stag haykali, Anqara . Ushbu raqam Hacettepe universiteti ramzi uchun ishlatiladi. Asosiy maqola: reyting Xitit dinlari va mifologiyasi ularning Hattik, Mesopotamiyalik va Hurrialik hamkasblari tomonidan kuchli ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Avvalgi davrlarda Indo-Evropa elementlari hali ham ochiq-oydin ko'rinib turishi mumkin edi. Xet panteonida taniqli xudolar keng tarqalgan edi. Tarhunt (Hurrian Teshub) "G'olib", "Kummiya shohi", "Osmon shohi", "Xatti erining lordi" deb nomlangan. U xudolarning boshlig'i edi va uning ramzi buqadir. Teshub singari, u ikki tog'dan tashqari soqolli odam sifatida tasvirlangan. U jang va g'alaba xudosi, ayniqsa ziddiyat tashqi kuchni o'z ichiga olgan bo'lsa. [65] Teshub ilon Illuyanka bilan ziddiyatlari bilan ham tanilgan. [66] Qonun [tahrir] Xet qonunlari, imperiyaning boshqa yozuvlari kabi, pishiq loydan qilingan mixxatli planshetlarda saqlanadi. Xet qonuni qonuni, asosan, 186 maqola o'z ichiga olgan ikkita loy tabletkadan keladi va Xet podshohligining dastlabki davrida qo'llaniladigan qonunlar to'plami. [67] Tabletkalardan tashqari, Xet sikli yozuvlari bilan bezatilgan yodgorliklarni imperiya hukumati va qonunchilik kodlarini tasvirlaydigan markaziy Anatoliyada topish mumkin. Tabletkalar va yodgorliklar Eski Xet podshohligidan (mil. Avv. 1650-1500) Yangi Xet podshohligi (Miloddan avvalgi 1500-1180) deb nomlanadi. [69] Bu vaqt oralig'ida turli tarjimalarda tilni modernizatsiya qilish [70] va ko'plab jinoyatlar [71] [71] ko'proq insoniy jazolar berilgan bir qator huquqiy islohotlar yaratilgan. Ushbu o'zgarishlarni tarixiy imperatorlik davrida yoki yangi qonunlardagi tilni o'zgartiradigan yangi tarjimalarda yangi va turli qirollarning paydo bo'lishiga bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin [69]. Har ikki holatda ham Xet qonunlari ma'lum jinoyatlar uchun chiqarilishi kerak bo'lgan juda aniq jarima yoki jazolarni beradi [69] [71] va Chiqish va Qonunlar kitoblarida mavjud Muqaddas Kitob qonunlariga o'xshashdir. Jinoiy jazolar bilan bir qatorda qonunchilik kodlari ham meros va o'lim kabi muayyan holatlar bo'yicha ko'rsatmalar beradi. Qonunlarning qo'llanilishi [tahrir] Xet xalqlari tomonidan qo'llanilgan qonunlar ko'p hollarda davlat yoki boshqa davlatlarga nisbatan juda aniq jinoyatlar yoki jinoyatlarga ishora qilmoqda jismoniy shaxslar va ushbu jinoyatlar uchun jazo berishni talab qiladilar. Tabletkalardagi qonunlar imperiya bo'ylab o'rnatilgan ijtimoiy konvensiya yig'ilishi. Hozirgi vaqtda Xet qonunlari jazolarda teng huquqlarga ega emas. Ko'p hollarda erkak va ayollar uchun alohida jazo va jazo ro'yxati keltirilgan. [67] Erkaklar ozodlikka chiqarilgan ayollarga nisbatan ularga qarshi jinoyatlar uchun ko'pincha tovon to'lashadi. Qullar, erkak yoki ayol, juda oz huquqlarga ega edi va jinoyatlar uchun o'z xo'jayinlari tomonidan osongina jazolanishi yoki ijro etilishi mumkin [67]. Ko'pgina maqolalarda mulkka va shaxsiy shikastga barham berish belgilab qo'yilgan bo'lib, u eng ko'p qo'llaniladigan hukm - yo'qolgan mol-mulkni qoplash uchun to'lov. Shunga qaramay, bu holatlarda erkaklar ko'pincha ayollardan ko'ra ko'proq miqdorda kompensatsiya olishadi. [67] Boshqa maqolalarda qullar va ozod kishilarning nikohi qanday bo'lishi kerakligi tasvirlangan. Har qanday ajralish yoki ajralish holatlarida erkin erkak, ayol yoki erkak, nikohdan kelib chiqadigan bitta boladan tashqari hammasini saqlab qoladi. [69] Yana shuni ta'kidlash kerakki, gomoseksualizm Xet imperiyasining qonunlarida hech qanday eslatib o'tilmagan [67]. Ota-o'lim jazosi tavsiya etiladigan holatlar ko'pincha og'ir jinoyatlar va jinsiy zo'rlik juftliklar. Ushbu holatlarning aksariyati diniy e'tiqodga qarshi jiddiy jinoyatlar uchun jazo sifatida ommaviy qiynoq va jazolashni o'z ichiga oladi. Ushbu jumlalarni ko'p qismi Xet imperiyasining keyingi bosqichlarida ketishi mumkin edi, chunki asosiy huquqiy islohotlar boshlandi [69] [67] Qonun islohoti [tahrir] Qonunlarning turli xil tarjimalari imperiyaning tarixida , [70] qonunning Xet nuqtai nazariga asosan dinga asoslanadi va davlat hokimiyatini saqlab qolishga mo'ljallangan [67]. Bundan tashqari, jazolar jinoyatchilikning oldini olish va shaxsiy mulk huquqlarini himoya qilish maqsadlariga qaratilgan [67]. Jinoyatchilikning oldini olish maqsadlari ayrim jinoyatlar uchun berilgan jazolarning jiddiyligidan ko'rinadi. O'lim jazosi va qiynoqqa solish dinga nisbatan og'irroq jinoyatlar uchun jazolanadi va hayotning xususiy mulkini yo'qotish uchun qattiq jazolarga tortiladi. Tabletkalar shohning ba'zi jinoyatlarni kechirish qobiliyatini tasvirlaydi, biroq odamni qotillik uchun afv etishni alohida taqiqlaydi [67]. [69] Miloddan avvalgi X-XV asrning 15-asrdagi ba'zi nuqtalarida Xet qonunlari qiynoq va kapitaldan uzoqlashadi jazo va jarimalar kabi ko'proq gumanitar shakllarda qo'llaniladi. [67] [69] Qadimgi qonun tizimi jinoyatlar uchun o'ch olish va jazolashga asoslangan bo'lsa, yangi tizim jismoniy yoki o'lim jazosidan pulni qoplashni afzal ko'rgan jazoni ko'proq ko'rgan [67]. Ushbu keskin islohotlar nima uchun aniq emas, balki, ehtimol, bu p qotillikni qatl qilish bilan bartaraf etishda biron bir shaxs yoki oilaning manfaati uchun foydalanilmaydi. [67] [69] Ushbu islohotlar nafaqat o'lim jazosiga hukm qilingan. Katta miqdorda jarimalar to'lanishi kerak bo'lgan hollarda jarimani keskin kamaytirish mumkin. Misol uchun, ushbu yirik islohotlar oldidan hayvonni o'g'irlash uchun qilinadigan to'lov hayvonlarning qiymatidan o'ttiz marta ko'p edi; islohotlardan so'ng jarima asl jarimaning yarmiga qisqartirildi. Shu bilan birga, islohotlar davrida tilni modernizatsiya qilish va buzilishlarni o'zgartirishga urinish mumkin. [67] [68] [69] [70] Qonunlarning misollar [tahrir] Qadimgi va isloh qilingan Xet uchta asosiy jazo turini ko'rish mumkin: o'lim, qiynoq yoki kompensatsiya / jarima. [67] Ibodatxonada yozilgan yozuvlarda Xet diniga yoki jismoniy shaxslarga nisbatan sodir etilgan jinoyatlar uchun maxsus jazolar mavjud. Ko'pgina hollarda, ammo hamma holatlarda shunga o'xshash qonunlarni tasvirlaydigan moddalar birlashtiriladi. O'ndan ziyod ketma-ket maqolada jinsiy aloqa bilan shug'ullanishga ruxsat berilgan va ta'qiqlangan narsalar ta'riflangan. [69] [71] Bu juftliklar asosan erkaklarni (ba'zan erkin erkaklar, ba'zan odatda erkaklar deb ataladigan) [71], hayvonlarni, qarindosh-urug'larni, turmush o'rtoqlarning qarindosh-urug'larini yoki qarindosh-urug'lari bilan o'zaro munosabatlarga ega bo'lishadi [67]. Ushbu moddalarning aksariyati aniq jazolarni bermaydi, ammo qonunni isloh qilishdan avval dinga qarshi jinoyatlar ko'pincha o'lim bilan jazolanadi. Bunga bevosita nikoh va jinsiy aloqalar kiradi. [69] [71] Misol uchun, bir maqolada: "Agar inson sigir bilan jinsiy aloqa qilsa, bu nikohsiz jinsiy aloqa bo'lib, u o'limga mahkum qilinadi" [71] Otlar va xachirlarga o'xshash munosabatlar o'lim jazosiga mahkum etilmadi, jinoyatchi keyinchalik ruhoniy bo'la olmaydi. [67] [69] Boshqa shaxslarning hisobidan qilingan harakatlar ko'pincha jinoyatchiga pul, hayvon yoki er shaklida bo'ladigan biron bir tovon puli to'lashini ko'radi. Bu harakatlar qishloq xo'jaligi erlarini yo'q qilish, chorvadorlikning o'limiga yoki jarohatlanishiga yoki shaxsga tajovuz qilishni o'z ichiga olishi mumkin. Bir necha maqolalarda xudolarning ishlari haqida ham so'z bor. Agar hayvon muayyan holatlarda o'lishi kerak bo'lsa, u kishi xudoning qo'li bilan o'lganini da'vo qilishi mumkin. Ular o'zlarining da'volarining haqiqat ekanligiga qasamyod qilishsa, ular hayvon egasiga tovon puli to'lashdan ozod qilinganlar. [69] Boshqa shaxsga tegishli bo'lgan hayvonlarga etkazilgan shikastlanishlar deyarli doimo bevosita to'lov bilan to'lanadi yoki yarador bo'lgan hayvonni jinoyatchi tomonidan sog'lom holda savdoga qo'yiladi [71]. Tabletlarda keltirilgan barcha qonunlar jinoiy jazoga tortiladi. Misol uchun, qullarning nikohi va farzandlarining bo'linishi bir guruh maqolalarda "Qul ayol bolalarni ko'pini, erkagi bir bolani bir bolani olib ketishi kerak" degan ko'rsatmaga ega. ozod kishilar va qullarning nikohiga berilgan. Boshqa harakatlarga quyidagilar kiradi: [69] [71] Bibliya Xitlari [tahrir] Asosiy maqola: Injil Xetlari Muqaddas Kitobda Xet xalqidan Ibtido kitobidan Ezra-Naximiyga qadar bo'lgan turli xil oyatlar haqida gap boradi. Ibtido 10 (Nuh nasllari) ularni Xom ismli o'g'li Xetning o'g'li, Kan'on orqali bog'laydi. Shunday qilib, Xet xalqi Kan'on xalqi orasida topilgan. Xet xalqi odatda isroilliklarning orasida yashaydigan bir xalq sifatida tasvirlangan. Ibrohim Patrikhonning Machpelaxni "Ephron HaChiti" ni, Xetlik Efronni sotib oladi; Xet xalqi Dovudning lashkarboshilaridan iborat katta askarlardir. Ammo Shohlar kitobi 7: 6 da ular o'zlarining shohliklari bo'lgan (ular ko'pincha "shohlar" deb nomlanadi), ehtimol geografik Kan'ondan tashqarida joylashgan va Suriya armiyasini parvoz qilish uchun etarlicha kuchga ega. [72] Bibliyadagi "Xetliklar" ning barchasi yoki barchasini anglatadimi, degan juda ko'p ilmiy munozaralar masalasi: 1) asl Hattilar; 2) Ichki Anatoliya uchun "Xatti" nomini saqlab qolgan va bugungi kunda "Xetliklar" deb nomlangan (bu maqolaning mavzusi) Hind-Yevropalik bosqinchilari; yoki 3) Anatoliya guruhlarining ikkalasiga ham yoki har ikkalasiga ham aloqador bo'lgan yoki bo'lmasligi mumkin bo'lgan va keyingi Surro-Xet davlatlari bilan ham bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan yoki bo'lmasligi mumkin bo'lgan kanonik guruh. [73] Boshqa bibliya olimlari (Max Myuller ), Kan'on o'g'li Xet bilan aloqada bo'lishdan ko'ra, Kichik Osiyo Xatti erni o'rniga Eski Ahd adabiyotida va apokrifa sifatida "Kittim" (Chittim) deb nomlangan, xalq esa Javan o'g'li uchun nomlangan. [74] Shuningdek qarang [tahrir] Qadimgi Yaqin Sharq portali Xet podshohlari ro'yxatiLekin Muqaddas Kitob uchun ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan asarlar ro'yxati Lug'at xronologik vaqt jadvallariReferences [tahrir] Qadimgi dunyodagi jinoyatlar va jazolar - Page 29, Isroil Drapkin - 1989 "2006-05 -02 xet "deb nomlangan. 7 iyul 2004 yil. Ardzinba, Vladislav. (1974): Xattan orasidagi tipologik yaqinlik haqida ayrim eslatmalar va Shimoliy-G'arbiy Kavkaz (Abxaziya-Adigiya) tillari. "Internationale Tagung der Keilschriftforscher deydi sozialistischen Länder", buharestda, 23.-25. Aprel 1974. Zusammenfassung deydi Vorträge (Assyriologica 1), P. 10-15. "Xet xalqlari" ni ko'taring. Britaniya muzeyi. London: Britaniya muzeyining homiylari. Qabul qilingan 7 Noyabr 2014. Qadimgi Tarix Ansiklopediyasi. "Dengiz xalqlari". Sentyabr, 2009. Dengiz xalqlari. O'tish: a b Erimtan, Jon. (2008). Xet, Usmonlilar va Turklar: Og'a o'g'li Ahmed aka va Kemalist Anatoliyadagi turk millatining qurilishi, Anatoliya tadqiqotlari, 58, 141-171 ^ Frensis Uilyam Newman 1853 Ivon monarxiyasining tarixi: Shomuil hokimiyatidan Babylonish Captivity Edition. Jon Chapman, London P-179 2Tahrirlash ^ Xitliklar: unutilgan imperiyaning hikoyasi Archibald Henry Seys tomonidan Queen's kolleji, Oksford. 1888 y. Oktabr. Kirish Texti, Charlz (1835). "18-may, 1835 yil, Rapor, L. Académie royale des Signes and Belles-lettres de l'Institut, M. Texier va uning atrofida, shuningdek, Bogaz qishlog'i -Keui, dans l'Asie minani "(1835-yil 15-mayda Institutning Yozuvlar va San'at Akademiyasiga o'qing), Texier tomonidan yuborilgan dispetcherlik va uning yaqinida kashf etilgan basseynlarning rasmlarini o'z ichiga olgan. Kichik Osiyodagi Bogaz-Keui qishlog'i [hozirgi Boğazkale]. Journal des Savants (frantsuz tilida): 368-376. ^ Kloekhorst, Alwin. "Kanishning shaxsiy nomlari: eng qadimgi Indo-Evropa tilshunoslik materialidir" .Xet imperiyasini tiklang. Chapter V. Vohid KurkjianIeroglifik Luwianning qisqacha grammatikasi, John Marangozis (2003) "Beoz", Richard X., "Kizzuwatna tarixi va Shashshura Shartnomasi tarixi", Orientalia 55 (1986) 424-son. ^ Beal ga o'tish. (1986) p. 426 Ma'yorni ko'taring ^ Mallory, J. P .; Adams, Duglas Q. (1997). Hind-evropa madaniyat ensiklopediyasi. Teylor va Frensis. 4-6- sah. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5. Qabul qilingan 24-mart, 2012-yil. ^ Puhvel, J. (1994). "Anatoliy: Autochton yoki Interloper". Hind-Evropa tadqiqotlari jurnali. 22 (3 & 4): 251-264. ^ Pastga tushish: b Steiner, G. (1990). "Birinchi hindu-evropaliklarning Anatoliyaga ko'chishi qayta ko'rib chiqildi". Hind-Evropa tadqiqotlari jurnali. 18 (1 & 2): 185-214. ^ Mallory, J. (1989) yuqoriga ko'taring. "Hind-evropaliklarni qidirishda". Nyu-York: Temza va Xudson. ^ Renfrew, S (1999). 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Archi, Alfonso (2010). "Xet xalqlari Xet tilida qanday yozishni boshladilar?". Cohen, Yoram; Gilan, Amir; Miller, Jared L. Paks Xetitika: Ittaman qo'shiqchisining sharafiga Xet va uning qo'shnilari haqida tadqiqotlar. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. s. "Forlanini 2010", s. 115-135 ^ O'tish: a b Forlanini 2010, p. 121Tashlang. StBoT 18 Kuchrt, Amélie (1995). Qadimgi Yaqin Sharq, Birinchi jild, London va Nyu-York: Routledge. 226-27- sah. ISBN 0-415-16763-9. ^ O'tish: a b Forlanini 2010, p. 122 ^ O'tish: a b Forlanini, 130Yaxshilik ^ Bryce, 2005, Chs. 2 va 4; Forlanini.Jump up ^ Fortanini 2010, p. 119Yoshni yuqoriga oling, Mark, Joshua (28-aprel, 2011-yil). "Xet xalqlari". Yangilangan sana: May 9, 2017. Roebuck, Carl (1966). Qadimgi dunyo olami. Nyu-York: Charles Schibnerning o'g'illari. s. 93. Gurney, O. R. (1966). Xet xalqlari. Baltimor, Maryland: Penguen kitoblari. s. 23. ^ O'tish: a b d d Roebuck, Karl. Qadimgi dunyo olami. s. 94.Fortanini, 115-6. Yuqoriga ko'taring ^ Gurney, O. R. Xet. s. 25. Gurney, O. R. Xet. 25-26 gacha. ^ Pastga tushish: b Roux, Georges. Qadimgi Iroq. ^ Windle, Joachim Latacz (2004). Troy va Homer: eski sirni yechishda. Oksford: Oksford universiteti matbuoti. 121-122-sahifalar. ISBN 978-0-19-926308-0 .; Bryce, Trevor (1999). Xet xalqlarining Shohligi. Oksford: Oksford universiteti matbuoti. s. 60. ISBN 978-0-19-924010-4. Bekman, Gari M .; Bryce, Trevor R .; Cline, Erik H. (2012). Qadimgi dunyo yozuvlari: Ahhiyawa matnlari (PDF). Atlanta: Injil liriklari jamiyati otish. s. 6. ISSN 1570-7008. Hech bo'lmasa ehtimol Ahhiyotova muammosi / savoliga javob berildi va javob berildi, desa bo'ladi, chunki Ahhiyotova Xetliklar tomonidan bronza davridagi Myzen Dunyo dunyosining bir yoki bir nechtasiga murojaat qilgani shubhasiz. ^ Gurney, OR Xet. s. 110. ^ O'tish: a b c Gurney, O. R. Xet. s. 36. Ramses II va Hattusili III o'rtasidagi tinchlik shartnomasi. Qadimgi Misr: tarix va madaniyatga kirish. Dekabr, 2006 yil. Horst Nowacki, Wolfgang Lefevre Fuqarolik va dengiz me'morchiligi shakllarini yaratish: o'zaro intizomga oid taqqoslash BRILL, 2009 ISBN 9004173455Gurney, O. R. Xet. s. 39. Barnett, R.D., "Frigiya va Temir zamonida Anatoliya xalqlari", Kembrij qadimgi tarix, vol. II, 2 qism (1975 y.) B. Gruziya tarixchisi Ivane Javaxishvili Tabal, Tubal, Jabal va Jubalni qadimgi gruzin qabilalaridan deb hisoblagan va ular "Xet xalqlari" ga qarshi bo'lgan "Kartvelian" so'zini aytganlar. Turkiya haqida hamma narsa. 5 May 2017. Qabul qilingan 5 May 2017. Büyült ^ Bryce, Trevor (17 dekabr 2004). Hitit dunyosida hayot va jamiyat. Oksford universiteti matbuoti. s. ISBN 978-0-19-927588-5. 8 aprel 2011 yilda qabul qilindi. "Xet imperiyasi" ni ko'taring. Eski Ahddagi talaba. 4: 32-34). 1 sentyabr 1884. JSTOR 3156304.Gumpy, Ronald (Fall, 1995). "Alisher Höyük'ten ko'rilgan Hitit İmperializm va Anti-Imperial qarshilik". Qadimgi Anatoliyada imperiyaning arxeologiyasi. 299/300: 69-70. JSTOR 1357346. 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Cohen, Yoram; Gilan, Amir; Miller, Jared L. Paks Xetitika: Ittaman qo'shiqchisining sharafiga Xet va uning qo'shnilari haqida tadqiqotlar. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.Gurney, O.R. (1952) Xet, Penguen, ISBN 0-14-020259-5Güterbok, Hans Gustav (1983) "reyting H. Tadmor va M. Veynfeldning tarixshunoslik, tarixshunoslik va izohlashlar: Injil va mixxatli adabiyotlarda tadqiqotlar, Magnes press, ibroniy universiteti, 21-35. Xoffner, Jr., HA (1973) "Xet va Hurrialar", "Eski Ahd Zamonalari", "Clarendon Press", Oksford.Jasanoff, Jay H. (2003), Xet va Indo-Evropa Ittifoqi Oksford: Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19- 924905-9 Kloekhorst, Alwin (2007), Xet merosxo'midagi lug'atning etimologik lug'ati, ISBN 978-90-04-16092-7 Makqueen, JG (1986) Xet va ularning zamondoshlari Kichik, qayta ko'rib chiqilgan va kengaytirilgan, qadimgi xalqlar Adams, DQ (1997), Indo-Evropa madaniyati entsiklopediyasi, Teylor & FrensisMelchert, X. Kreyg (ingliz tilida) 2012). "Anatoliyning mavqei" (PDF) .Mendenhall, Jorj E. (1973) O'ninchi nasl: Bibliya urfining kelib chiqishi, Jon Hopkins nom (1970) Der Anitta Matn, (Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.Orlin, Louis L. (1970) Kappadokiya, Mouton, Laheydagi Asur Koloniyalari. Parpola, Asko (2015), Hinduizmning ildizlari. Erta Aryans va Indus Civilizatsiyasi, Oksford Universiteti PressPatri, Sylvain (2007), Anatoliy Indo-evropesiyaliklar, (StBoT 49), Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, ISBN 978-3-447-05612- [Tahrir] Jak Freu va Mishel Mazoyer, Les Hittites va Tomon lug'ati 1, To'plam Kubaba, L'Harmattan, Parij, 2007; Jak Freu va Mishel Mazoyer, Les débuts L'Hermattan, Parij, 2007, Jacques Freu va Mishel Mazoyer, L'Appoé du nouvel empire hittite, Les Hittites va Therma 3, To'plam Kubaba, L Harmattan, Parij, 2008. Jaques Freu va Mishel Mazoyer, Xeteitning Le Délin va Chute de l'empire Hittit, Les Hittites va Tome 4, To'plam Kubaba, L'Harmattan, Parij, 2010.Jacques Freu va Mishel Mazoyer, Les royaumes Neo-Xetliklar, Les-Xetliklar va Tome 5, To'plam Kubaba, L'Harmatt an, Parij, 2012.Xalqaro aloqalar [tahrir] Wikimedia Commons Xet imperiyasi bilan bog'liq axborotga ega. Vizaning "1911-yilgi Encyclopædia Britannica" maqolasi Xet tilining matnidir. Sharq institutida videofilm - Xet imperiyasining chegaralarini kuzatish. G'arbda Hattusas / BogazköyArzawa, Xetitga nur sochadi. Yozilganidek bir muhim sahifalardan biri bo'lgan Boğazköy'ün tasviri. (TITUSda) Tahsin OzgucHittites.infoH Anatoliyada Xet davrida Hethitologiortal Maynz, Akademie der Wissenschaften, Maynz, matnlar korpus va har bir narsaga oid keng bibliografiya tomonidan kappadokiyadagi Uşaklı Höyük Download 0,5 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham:
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iqtisodiyot kafedrasi
steiermarkischen landesregierung
asarlaringizni yuboring
o'zingizning asarlaringizni
Iltimos faqat
faqat o'zingizning
steierm rkischen
landesregierung fachabteilung
rkischen landesregierung
hamshira loyihasi
loyihasi mavsum
faolyatining oqibatlari
asosiy adabiyotlar
fakulteti ahborot
ahborot havfsizligi
havfsizligi kafedrasi
fanidan bo’yicha
fakulteti iqtisodiyot
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iqtisodiyot fakultet
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