Xet va Qadimgi Kichik Osiyo Google ClassroomFacebookTwitter

Xet va Qadimgi Kichik Osiyo

Google ClassroomFacebookTwitter

E-pochta

Umumiy nuqtai

Xet xalqlari qadimgi Anatoliy (zamonaviy Turkiya) bo'lib, mil. Avv. 1600-1180 yillarda imperiya tuzgan.

Xet xalqi ilgari temir buyumlarini ishlab chiqargan, hukumatning turli sohalarida mustaqil hokimiyatga ega hukumat amaldorlari orqali hukmronlik qilgan va bo'ron xudolariga sajda qilgan.

Xetliklar Misr bilan davom etayotgan mojarolar dunyodagi birinchi tinchlik shartnomasini ishlab chiqdi.

Xetliklar Kichik Osiyoga ko'chib o'tgan miloddan avvalgi 1600-yillarda Kichik Osiyoning Xattusada (hozirgi Turkiyadagi) imperiya tuzgan Hind-evropaliklarning qadimiy guruhi edi.

Xet imperiyasi miloddan avvalgi 1300-yillarning o'rtalarida, Kichik Osiyo bo'ylab tarqalganda, shimoliy Levant va Yuqori Mesopotamiyaga tarqaganida ulkan yutuqlarga erishgan.

Ko'p hindu-evropaliklar singari, Xetliklar ham uzoq masofalarga borib, otlarning uyg'unligi tufayli boshqa mamlakatlarga ko'chib o'tishgan. Shuningdek, qadimgi Mesopotamiyada va mintaqadagi boshqa erta sivilizatsiyalarda ishlatiladigan g'ildirak va vagon kabi texnologiyalarning tarqalishi ham pastoralistlar va agrar tsivilizatsiyalarga yordam berdi.

Taxminan mil. Avv. 1180 yildan keyin imperiya tugadi va bir necha mustaqil neo-xitlik yangi xet-shtat-davlatlarga aylandi, ularning ba'zilari mil. Avv.

Xet imperiyasining 1300-yillarning o'rtalaridan boshlab xaritasi. Xet imperiyasi yashil rangda va Qoradengiz va O'rta er dengizi bilan chegaradosh.

Xet imperiyasi asosan mil. Av. 1300-yillarning o'rtalarida. Surat muloyimligi yo'q.

Madaniyat

Xet tillari hozirgi kunda Amerika, Yevropa, G'arbiy va Janubiy Osiyoda keng tarqalgan bo'lib gapiradigan Hind-Evropa tiliga mansub bir tildir.

1

 19-asr arxeologiyasiga ko'ra, Xet xalqining boshlang'ich xitligi bilan birinchi identifikatsiyalashganligi sababli, Xet xalqining nomi superscript boshlangan. Xet xalqi odatda isroilliklarning orasida yashaydigan xalq deb ataladi.

Miloddan avvalgi 3000-yillardan boshlab ularning madaniyati taraqqiy etgan bo'lsa-da, Xetliklar Temir zamonining kashshoflari bo'lib, miloddan avvalgi 1400-yillarda temir ashyolarni ishlab chiqarishni boshladi. Bu juda muhim, chunki Xet xalqining temir va po'latdan foydalanishi bronzadan ko'ra samarali bo'lgan asbob-uskunalar va qurollar yaratgan. Xet xalqlari bu texnologiyani qanday ishlab chiqqanligi haqida bir necha nazariyalar mavjud. Ba'zi olimlarning fikricha, Xetliklar yillar mobaynida metalni qayta ishlash bilan tajriba o'tkazgan va natijada ular mis va kalay kabi boshqa metallarga qaraganda yuqori haroratda eriydi. Bundan tashqari, Xetliklar ushbu texnologiyani Eronning g'arbiy Zagros tog'larida xalqlardan o'rgandilar. Ossuriya va Misr imperiyasining ba'zi qismlari Xetliklarning savdo sheriklari temir mahsulotlariga bo'lgan talabga ega edi

2

 superscriptni boshlash, 2, oxirining yuqori qismidir

Miloddan avvalgi 1180 yildan so'ng, Levantdagi umumiy janjal ortida dengiz xalqlari - noma'lum millatning to'satdan kelishi bilan, O'rta dengiz va Misr shaharlariga hujum qilish uchun kemalarni ishlatgan - shohlik bir necha mustaqil neo-xit shaharlari tarqalgan.

3

 superscriptni boshlash, 3, oxiri superscript Xet tsivilizatsiyasining tarixi asosan avvalgi qirollik hududida joylashgan va Misr va Yaqin Sharqdagi arxivlarda joylashgan diplomatik va savdo xabarlardan topilgan mixxat matnlaridan ma'lum. Chikop yozuvi shuni ko'rsatmoqdaki, Xetliklar Mesopotamiya imperiyasi bilan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri aloqada yoki Xet xalqining Shomeriylarga - Mesopotamiya imperiyasiga aloqador bo'lgan boshqa markaziy-anadolik guruh Xatti tomonidan bosib olinishi orqali bog'langan. Qanday bo'lmasin, Mesopotamiyaliklarning yozish texnologiyasi Xet xalqiga o'tkazildi.

Hukumat

Xet davlatining boshlig'i podshoh edi. Shundan keyin podshohning avlodidan bo'lgan podshohning vorisi tug'ildi. Ba'zi rasmiylar hukumatning turli sohalarida mustaqil hokimiyatni amalga oshirganlar, shuning uchun shoh qirollikning barcha qirralarini nazorat qilmadi. Masalan, Qirol himoyachilari boshlig'i, nozirlar boshlig'i - bürokrasi uchun mas'ul bo'lgan va hatto sharobni boshqaruvchilarning boshlig'i!

Xet xalqining haqiqiy hayoti va madaniyati sirli, chunki bu madaniyatning yozma hujjatlari asosan shohlar va ularning kampaniyalari bilan shug'ullanadi. Ma'lumki, Xetliklar Akkad yozuvlarini ishlatishgan, lekin o'z Indo-Evropa tillarida yozgan va tsilindrni muhrlarni Mesopotamiya bo'ylab qilganidek, hujjatlarni imzolash va mulkni belgilash uchun ishlatgan va bu ikki madaniyat o'rtasidagi aloqani taklif qilgan.

Biroq, Xetliklar Mesopotamiyada Sümer bilan oldindan bog'langan Xet xalqidan bo'lgan Xatti, Hatti orqali Mesopotamiya urf-odatlarini o'rgangan bo'lishi mumkin. Biz o'rgangan xetliklarning hayoti va madaniyatining tafsilotlari Xatti uchun kichik farqlar kabi ko'rinadi. Biroq, biz bu ikki guruh o'rtasidagi munosabatlarning aniq xususiyatini bilmaymiz, chunki bu oz sonly topilgan asosiy manbalar ^ 4 4 superscriptni boshlash, 4, oxiri superscriptReligionStorm xudolari Xet panteonida - butparast dindagi barcha xudolar majmuasida mashhur edi. Tarhunt Fathi, Kummiya shohi, Osmon Shohi va Xatti erining Rabbi deb ataladi. U jang va g'alaba xudosi, ayniqsa, xorijiy kuchlarga qarshi edi. Bu Xit xalqining harbiy kuchga ega ekanini ko'rsatishi mumkin. Kadeshning urushida Xet xalqlari bilan mashhur bo'lganligi, 1274 yilda Misr fir'averi Ramesses II armiyasiga qarshi Kadesh jangidir. Ushbu jang ayniqsa, muhim ahamiyatga ega, chunki har ikki tomon ham g'alaba qozonishgan, bu esa tarixda ilk bor jahon tarixida, ya'ni 1258 yilda tinchlik kelishuviga olib kelgan. Xet va Misrliklar o'rtasidagi to'qnashuv Xet xalqlari Misr imperiyasiga kirishga majbur bo'lib, Fir'avn Tutmozlar III. Fir'avn Ramesses II Xet xalqini o'z chegarasidan quvishga qaror qildi. Xet xalqining savdo-sotiq markazi bo'lgan Kadesh shahrini egallab olish orqali foyda ko'rishiga umid qilgan. Ramses Misrdan Xet xalqining shohi Muvatliyning qo'shiniga qarshi jang qilish uchun to'rtta bo'linmada 20 000 dan ortiq askarni boshidan Misr va Xet qo'shinlari bilan tenglashdi. Misrdagi jang aravalari tezda, chunki ular faqat ikkita kemada edi. Xet jang aravalari esa har bir aravadan ko'proq nayzani tashlab yuborishga imkon berdi. Qurolli aravalar va bronzadan kuchli bo'lgan temir asboblari kombinatsiyasi misrlik va xet harbiy texnika uning eng murakkab davrlaridan biri bo'lganligini anglatardi. Har ikkala sivilizatsiya kuchli davlat kuchi va imperiyalar ustidan nazorat qilish uchun kurashish uchun urushga yuborishga qodir bo'lganligi bilan faxrlanardi. Atamalar Ramses Misr uchun buyuk g'alabani talab qildi: u dushmanini urushda mag'lub qildi. Muavalliy g'alaba qozondi, chunki u Kadeshni yo'qotmadi. Qadash bitimi - birinchi tinchlik shartnomasi muhim hujjat edi, chunki u katta sivilizatsiyalarning bir-biri bilan urushayotgan-qilmasligini aniqlashga qodirligini ko'rsatdi .5 5 superscriptni boshlash, 5, superscriptWhat you think? Qadesh urushi va Qadash ahdini bizga buyuk sivilizatsiyalarning rahbarlari o'z fuqarolarining taqdirini qanday boshqarayotganligi haqida aytib berishlari kerakmi? [Hide] Ushbu maqola qisman Xetliklar tomonidan Boundlessdan olingan, CC BY-SA 4.0NotesSee Ancient History Encyclopedia . "Indo-Evropa tillari". May, 2014. https://www.ancient.eu/Indo-European_Languages/Pelicles Press-ga qarang. "Temir: maxfiy qurolmi?" 2013. http://www.periclespress.net/Hittites_iron.htmlQadimgi tarix ensiklopediyasiga qarang. "Dengiz xalqlari". Sentyabr 2009. https://www.ancient.eu/Sea_Peoples/ Ancient History Encyclopedia-ga qarang. "Xet xalqlari". Aprel, 2011. https://www.ancient.eu/hittite/Qadimiy tarix entsiklopediyasiga qarang. "Kadesh". Sentyabr, 2009. https://www.ancient.eu/Kadesh/

The Hittites and Ancient Anatolia

Google ClassroomFacebookTwitter

Email

Overview

The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian (modern-day Turkey) people who formed an empire between 1600-1180 BCE.

The Hittites manufactured advanced iron goods, ruled over their kingdom through government officials with independent authority over various branches of government, and worshipped storm gods.

The Hittites’ ongoing conflicts with Egypt produced the world’s first known peace treaty.

The Hittites were an ancient group of Indo-Europeans who moved into Asian Minor and formed an empire at Hattusa in Anatolia (modern Turkey) around 1600 BCE.

The Hittite Empire reached great heights during the mid-1300s BCE, when it spread across Asia Minor, into the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia.

Like many Indo-Europeans, the Hittites were able to travel long distances and migrate to other lands due to the domestication of horses. The spread of technologies like the wheel and wagon, which were also used in ancient Mesopotamia and other early civilizations in the region, also assisted pastoralists and agrarian civilizations.

After about 1180 BCE, the empire ended and splintered into several independent Neo-Hittite—new Hittite—city-states, some of which survived until the eighth century BCE.

A map of the Hittite empire at its greatest extent in the mid-1300s. The Hittite empire is colored in green and is bordered by the Black Sea and the Mediterranean sea.

The Hittite empire at its greatest extent in the mid-1300s BCE. Image courtesy Boundless.

Culture

The Hittite language was a member of Indo-European, a family of related languages that today are widely spoken in the Americas, Europe, and Western and Southern Asia.^1

1

start superscript, 1, end superscript Hittites are so named because of their initial identification with the Biblical Hittites, according to nineteenth-century archaeology. The Hittites are usually referred to as a people living among the Israelites.

Although their civilization thrived during the Bronze Age, starting around 3000 BCE, the Hittites were pioneers of the Iron Age and began manufacturing iron artifacts around 1400 BCE. This is significant because the Hittites’ use of iron and steel created tools and weapons that were more efficient than those made of bronze. A couple of theories exist about how the Hittites developed this technology. Some scholars believe the Hittites had been experimenting with metalworking for years, eventually leading them to discover a smelting process that would melt iron, which melts at a higher temperature than other metals like copper or tin. It’s also possible that the Hittites learned some of this technology from peoples in the Zagros Mountains in western Iran. The Hittites’ trading partners in Assyria and parts of the Egyptian empire had a high demand for iron products.^2

2

start superscript, 2, end superscript

After 1180 BCE, amid general turmoil in the Levant with the sudden arrival of the Sea Peoples—people of unknown nationality who used ships to raid Mediterranean and Egyptian cities—the kingdom scattered into several independent Neo-Hittite city-states.^3

3

start superscript, 3, end superscript The history of the Hittite civilization is known mostly from cuneiform texts found in the area of their former kingdom and from diplomatic and commercial mail found in archives in Egypt and the Middle East. The cuneiform writing suggests that the Hittites had some connection with Mesopotamian empires, either through direct communication or through the Hittites’ conquest of another central-Anatolian group, the Hatti, who had connections to the Sumerians—a Mesopotamian empire. Either way, Mesopotamians’ writing technology was transferred to the Hittites.

Government

The head of the Hittite state was the king, followed by the heir-apparent—one of the king’s offspring born into the position of succeeding him. Some officials, however, exercised independent authority over various branches of the government, so the king did not control all aspects of the kingdom. For example, the Chief of the Royal Bodyguards, the Chief of the Scribes—who was in charge of bureaucracy—and even the Chief of the Wine Stewards!

The actual day-to-day life and culture of the Hittites is mysterious because the written documents from this culture deal mainly with the kings and their campaigns. It is known that the Hittites wrote using Akkadian script but in their own Indo-European language and used cylinder seals to sign documents and mark property as people did throughout Mesopotamia, suggesting a link between the two cultures.

However, Hittites may have learned about Mesopotamian customs through the Hatti, an Anatolian people the Hittites conquered, who had prior connections to Sumer in Mesopotamia. The details of Hittite life and culture we’ve learned seem to be slight variations on those of the Hatti. But we don’t know the exact nature of the relationship between these two groups given the small number of primary sources that have been found.^4 4 start superscript, 4, end superscriptReligionStorm gods were prominent in the Hittite pantheon—the set of all the gods in a polytheistic religion. Tarhunt was referred to as The Conqueror, The King of Kummiya, King of Heaven, and Lord of the land of Hatti. He was the god of battle and victory, especially against foreign powers. This might indicate that the Hittites placed value on military might.The Battle of KadeshOne military engagement the Hittites are famous for is the Battle of Kadesh against the Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II’s army in 1274 BCE. This battle is especially important because both sides claimed victory, which led to the first known peace treaty in the history of the world, in 1258 BCE.Conflict between Hittites and EgyptiansThe Hittites had been making headway into the Egyptian empire and had caused trouble for the Pharaoh Tutmoses III. Pharaoh Ramesses II resolved to drive the Hittites from his borders. He hoped to gain an advantage by capturing of the city of Kadesh, a center of commerce which the Hittites held. Ramesses marched from Egypt at the head of over 20,000 soldiers in four divisions to fight against the troops of Muwatalli, the king of the Hittites.BattleThe Egyptian and Hittite armies were pretty evenly matched, which is probably why both were able to claim victory. The Egyptian chariots were faster because they only had two people aboard them, while the Hittite chariots accommodated an extra person, allowing more spears to be thrown from each chariot. The combination of chariots and iron tools, which were stronger than bronze ones, meant that the Egyptian and Hittite military technology was some of the most sophisticated of its time. Both civilizations boasted strong state power and the ability to send troops to war in order to fight for control over their empires.AftermathRamesses claimed a great victory for Egypt: he had defeated his enemy in battle. Muwatalli also claimed victory because he didn’t lose Kadesh. The Treaty of Kadesh—the first peace treaty—was an important document because it showed the ability of large civilizations to determine whether or not they were at war with each other.^5 5 start superscript, 5, end superscriptWhat do you think?What do the Battle of Kadesh and the Treaty of Kadesh tell us about how leaders of big civilizations controlled the fates of their citizens?[Hide ]This article was partially adapted from "The Hittites" from Boundless, CC BY-SA 4.0NotesSee Ancient History Encyclopedia. "Indo-European Languages." May 2014. https://www.ancient.eu/Indo-European_Languages/See Pericles Press. "Iron: The secret weapon?" 2013. http://www.periclespress.net/Hittites_iron.htmlSee Ancient History Encyclopedia. "Sea Peoples." September 2009. https://www.ancient.eu/Sea_Peoples/See Ancient History Encyclopedia. "The Hittites." April 2011. https://www.ancient.eu/hittite/See Ancient History Encyclopedia. "Kadesh." September 2009. https://www.ancient.eu/Kadesh/