The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate ad 661-750

M
a
 war
a
’a ’l-nahr
) or Soghdiana, with its capital at
Samarqand. The population of both territories was basically Iranian but
politically they were a patchwork of towns and principalities whose
rulers used a wide variety of titles. Some of these rulers appear to have
been of Turkish origin while others were Iranians. The territories had
not yet been completely conquered by the Arabs to the same extent as
Khurasan, but as a result of earlier penetration, and particularly of the
conquests of Qutayba b. Muslim under al-Hajjaj, they had been brought
into the Arab sphere of influence. Generally the more western areas
were under the firmer control and regarded as more permanent
conquests while the eastern parts were still relatively independent. The
Arabs established garrisons in some of the main towns like Samarqand,

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Factionalism and Islamisation 
85
Bukhara and Balkh, but the local rulers were left in office on condition
that they paid a tribute to the Arabs. How they raised this tribute, by land
tax or poll tax, was not stipulated.
Difficulties arose for the Arabs in the period after Qutayba’s
conquest from three developments in particular. Firstly there was the
emergence, from 716 onwards of the Turkish tribes of the Turgesh
under their chief Su-Lu, who, with Chinese backing, established a
kingdom north-east of the Jaxartes (the Sayhun). This provided the
local rulers of Transoxania with a counterweight to use as a balance
against the pressure of the Arabs. Secondly there was the vacillation of
the Arabs regarding the encouragement of islamisation and the desire to
maintain the flow of tribute, contradictory aims. This gave rise not only
to discontent and rebellion among the local peoples but also provided
ammunition for the Muslim opponents of the Umayyads and enabled
Arab rebels to find support among the non-Arabs and invest their
movements with a religious colouring. Finally the growing factionalism
among the Arabs themselves weakened their position.
The result was a long and complex period of generally unsuccessful
military operations for the Arabs in the region, characterised by
frequent changes of governor and shifts of policy on the question of
whether or not islamisation was to be encouraged and the tribute lifted
from the local Muslims. Khalid al-Qasri’s period of office in Iraq began
with a major disaster, the way for which may have been opened by a
rebellion of the Yemenis in the army operating in Transoxania, known
in tradition as the ‘Day of Thirst’ (724). The army was trapped by the
Turgesh and rebel Soghdians on the far side of the Jaxartes, and the
survivors only just made it back to Samarqand. After this event the
Arabs found themselves on the defensive in the region and undertook
no further aggressive campaigns there for about fifteen years.
25
The vacillations in policy towards the non-Arab Muslims are best
illustrated in the figure of Ashras b. ‘Abd Allah al-Sulami, governor of
Khurasan from 726 to 729 or 730. Allegedly on the advice of an Iranian
secretary, Ashras tried to get the Soghdians to enter Islam by promising
them equality with the Arabs if they did so. He sent Abu ’l-Sayda’,
whom we have already met as a proponent of the 
mawali
 in the time of
‘Umar II, to Samarqand where, with the support of the local Arab
governor, it was proclaimed that acceptance of Islam would bring with
it remission of taxes. The result was a flood of converts among the local
peoples, but also complaints from the local non-Arab notables and
rulers that they were unable to meet their tribute payments now that so
many of their people had become ‘Arabs’. Consequently Ashras

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