100 Psychoacoustics the “missing” frequencies in a composite sound. The physical counterpart to
occlusion of sound waves, where an object lies in the propagation path, is not
what we mean here. In psychoacoustics the sonic analogy to visual occlusion is
masking, where frequencies are not so much missing as overlapping. Although
the waves from all sounds arrive at the ear, some may be effectively hidden by
others.
Schema Activation A schema is a pattern or template stored by the brain that incoming stimulus
is compared to. A cognitive psychology approach says that certain trajecto-
ries activate prelearned schemas. Fortunately this doesn’t work like searching
a file system, it happens through parallel processing that matches certain fea-
tures in a treelike way, so matching or recognition happens almost immedi-
ately. Conscious attention allows us to guide or filter the possible schemas and
search according to expectations, but attention plays a part even when we don’t
consciously attend. Each stage of a trajectory enhances or diminishes possible
choices from a lexicon of schemas. In other words, sounds behave in an expected
way, even when they are unfamiliar.
Primitive Features So, what are the rules that underlie this process? Mainly they are simple rules
of physics. In other words, we have an innate understanding of everyday physics
deeply ingrained into our perception of sound. In a musical context Beck (2000)
describes this as “acoustic viability.” This is important to us as sound design-
ers because we can suppose that if we pay proper attention to physics dur-
ing construction then sounds will “make sense.” Bregman (1990) calls this the
primitive auditory scene analysis level . Some, such as Shepard (1957), follow an
“aquired” hypothesis that regularity from the physical world is quickly learned
by all animals during formative development. Having been exposed to examples
every waking and sleeping moment of our lives it is perfectly reasonable that
such patterns are deeply ingrained into our low-level perception. Others tend
to favour a “strong” version analogous to Chomsky’s (1957) innate grammar
hypothesis, that we are born with a certain propensity to recognise primitive
features, such as the octave. This may follow from the structure of the cochlea,
the behaviour of spiking neurons, or the predefined structure of the auditory
neural pathways; for example in Broca’s area (Musso 2003).
Harmonicity One primitive feature is the regularity of harmonic structure. From our pre-
vious exploration of sound physics we know that simple harmonic oscillations
and resonances often lead to a series of frequencies related by a mathematical
rule. In the simplest cases of a vibrating string or pipe these are multiples of
a single harmonic interval. When we hear a flute we do not suppose that each
harmonic comes from a separate instrument, but that the whole series results
from the same source. This even works for inharmonic overtone patterns such as
those from square laminas or nonlinear systems. It is as if our brains implicitly