What is a cleft sentence?

What is a cleft sentence?

• A cleft sentence is derived from a simple sentence by dividing it into two clauses
• e.g. John broke the window. (simple sentence)
• → It was John who broke the window. (cleft)
• → It was the window that John broke. (cleft)
• Clefts have the following structure:
• It + part of the verb to be (sing.) + …. + who/that

Singular form of verb to be

• Note that the verb is always singular (agreeing with subject it), even if the complement is plural.
• It was the king who cried.
• It was the children who cried.
• It was me who knocked at the door.
• It was us who knocked at the door.

Highlighting a specific element

• Clefts offer the writer/speaker the possibility of giving prominence to specific elements in the sentence.
• It was the king who cried.
• It was the children who cried.
• It was me/I who knocked at the door.
• It was us/we who knocked at the door.

Other examples of highlighted elements

• It was John who broke the window.
• It was the window that John broke.
• It was in the bank that the bomb went off.
• It is red that she likes best.
• It is a lie that you are telling me.
• It was in 1998 that she got married.

• Pseudo-cleft
• relative clause (subject) + part of the verb to be + complement
• What I saw + was + a bright light.

• Like clefts, pseudo-clefts give the writer/speaker the possibility of highlighting a particular item - the complement.
• The structure allows different complements to be formed from the same unmarked simple sentence.

An example

• John gave his mother a necklace. (unmarked simple sentence)
• possible pseudo-clefts (highlighted elements in bold)
• What John did was give his mother a necklace.
• What John gave his mother was a necklace.
• The person/one whom John gave a necklace was his mother.
• The person/one who gave a necklace to his mother was John.

Nominal relative clauses

• A nominal relative clause is usually introduced by a wh- element.
• what/who/where/whoever/whatever/
• why/how
• A relative clause has a finite verb.

Examples of nominal relative clauses

• what/who/where/whoever/whatever/
• why/how
• What John did was break a window.
• Who John will see is a neurologist.
• Where John went was Naples.
• Whoever broke the window is a liar.
• Why John broke the window is a mystery.
• How John broke the window is a mystery.

Paraphrases of wh- elements

• But there are numerous “paraphrases” of the pseudo-cleft construction involving noun phrases of general reference in place of the wh-item.
• e.g. the person who, the one who, the people who, the thing(s) that, the place that, the reason why etc.

Substitution of wh-elements

• What (The thing that) John did was break a window.
• Who (The person whom) John will see is a neurologist.
• Where (The place to which) John went was Naples.
• Whoever (The person/one who) broke the window is a liar.
• Why (The reason why) John broke the window is a mystery.
• How (The way in which) John broke the window is a mystery.

Pseudo-clefts highlight the complement

• What John did was break a window.
• Whom John will see is a neurologist.
• Where John went is a secret.
• Whoever broke the window will be sorry.
• Whatever John wants will be his.
• Why John broke the window is a mystery.
• How John broke the window is not clear.

Pseud-clefts are also equatives

• A pseudo-cleft is a sort of equation, with the verb be equating the subject with the complement.
• e.g. What John did was give his mother a necklace.
• The act of giving his mother a necklace is equated with being what the duke did.
• The sentence could, theoretically, be written in two ways.
• What John did was give his mother a necklace.
• Give his mother a necklace was what John did.

Other examples

• 1 i. What the students will study was grammar structure.
• ii. Grammar structure is what the students will study.
• 2. i. The person who arrived late was Mr Jones.
• ii. Mr Jones was the person who arrived late.
• 3. i. Where they got married is Prague.
• ii. Prague is where they got married.
• (Do Exs. II b.)